The Underrepresentation of Women in Academic Leadership in the United S

The writings review for this study examines various researches imperative to understanding the context, nature, and extent of the trouble of underrepresentation of women in academic leadership in the United States. gender divergence simmer down exists in leadership positions in U.S academia women argon still struggling to be at the leadership table despite the cash advance the U.S. has made in recent times through the process of eliminating secretion in the workplace (Lapovsky & Slaner, 2009). The review also pulls resources from literatures dealing with assessing the root causes of underrepresentation of female person Leaders in the United States, with regards to employment discrimination, societal roles etc. From this review, more or less notable topics emerged that pulls an in depth analysis of the various factors that influence the underrepresentation of women as leaders in the United States academia. Consequently, research has shown that the number of female presidents check not changed in the last 10 years (Lapovsky & Slaner, 2009).Keywords women and leadership, Academic Leaders, US academe, Leadership Characteristics.Are women underrepresented in leadership role in the U.S Academia? A Literature ReviewA root written in the American Association of University Professors, states that as women pursue academic leadership advancement, the lour the percentage of women in higher leadership roles become. For instance, the representation of woman in leadership roles are as follows Fifty percent of women are lecturers and instructors, cardinal six percent are represented in Assistant professor positions, thirty eight percent and twenty three percent are college presidents (ACE, 2007). Furth... ...rative literature review Guidlines and examples. Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356-367. doi 10.1177/1534484305278283Kiamba, J. M. (2008). Womens activism for gender equity in Africa, women and leadership po sitions. Social and cultural barriers receivable Billing, Y., & Alvesson, M. (1989). Four ways of looking at women and leadership. Scandinavian journal of management, 5(1), 63-80. doi.10.1300/J111v32n03_08Fernandez, J. Race, (1998). Gender and rhetoric The true state of race and gender relations in corporate America. New York McGraw Hill. Recruitment, retention, and professional development of women faculty a report from the academic issues subcommittee of the provosts committee on the status of women. Informally published manuscript, tooshie Hopkins University, Maryland, USA. Retrieved from http//www.jhu.edu/news_info/reports/womenfac/report.html

Analyse of the Wind That Shakes the Barley

The Wind That Shakes the Barley The wind that shakes the barley is a snap made of Ken Loach, the film are made in 2006 context of use The wind that shakes the barley takes place in Ireland, during the Irish War of liberty (1919-1921) and the Irish Civil War (1922-1923) and it is a real story. After demesne war 1. Put a stopper for the home rule note of hand in Ireland there came English passs into Ireland and treated the Irish deal very bad. Then nigh of the Irish people got upset and began to entreat back. healThe film takes place in the Northern Ireland in the twenties, during IRAs fight against the British invasion of Ireland. The brothers Damien and Teddy ODonovan join a rebel social movement with some confederates, after Damiens failed attempt to escape to London to plow a doctor, and after British soldiers killed a very good friend of his. The group is the start of the Irish peoples rise against the British invasion, and many people starts joining groups just like theirs. They get caught by the British, and Teddy gets anguished by pulling out his nails, to make him say names, but he doesnt reveal his secrets to anyone.Afterwards they fetch Damien in. The boss threatens to kill Damien if he does not make known him round who helps them, but Damien is silent and gets thrown back into the cell. The young soldier who were supposed to shoot Damien helps them escape, but since he has no key to the abide cell, three of the captives get left cornerstone. The others escape in a provide drawn carriage and stay in a small folk while Teddy recovers. When Teddy is ready to travel again, they go to some reliable friends to live for a while.Here they ensure out that one of Damiens oldest friends Chris Reilly, a young guy who worked on a British enkindle to earn money to his family, was the one telling on them, and got them sent to jail. They produce orders to kill both Chris and Sir John, and Damien shoots them. Later he talks to his sweetheart, S inead ni Shuilleabhain, about the shame in facing Chris mother. After IRAs defeat on a British convoy, another detachment sets fire to Sineads house as payback, and shaves her wit while pointing a gun at her. Damien and the others resonate it all from behind a hill, but there are nothing they can do about it.The British are too many. When the British leave, Sinead is still deeply in shock, and while Damien comforts her, a messenger arrives with the message of a formal ceasefire between Britain and the IRA. The whole village celebrates, but not for long, because they find out about the Anglo-Irish treaty, and the IRA divides in two groups. Teddy is through fighting and accepts the treaty. He and his allies start patrolling in Irish Army-uniforms. Damien and his friends volition not accept the treaty and joins the Anti-treaty IRA.Damien gets caught and his Anti-treaty friend Dan was killed in their attempt of larceny weapons from the British army. Characters Damien is a newly grad uated doctor from college. You can see he is a recent graduate because in the film he is relatively young, and refers to himself as Medical graduate from college. His brother named Teddy. Individually, they represent a position in relation to how Ireland should be free Damien will fight through political means, and Teddy will struggle with violence. Which is typical in societies with war, there will always be different opinions on how to solve the conflict.

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Final Examination

University of Waterloo Department of Electrical &038 Computer Engineering E&038CE 231 Final Examination Spring 2000 Aids principle Sheets (attached), scientific Calculator Time Allowed 3 hours Exam Type Closed script Instructor C. R. Selvakumar Date August 10, 2000 Max Marks light speed operating instructions Answer all questions in PART-A and any two questions in replete(p) from PART-B. State your assumptions clearly. Be concise, precise and clear in your answers General assumptions to be made when not specified in a question (a) bust that the semiconductor is te. (b) relieve that the temperature T = three hundredK c) Use the data given in the principle sheets where needed. (d) Use the following expressions for the Effective Density of States in the conduction Band (NC) and in the Valence Band (NV) respectively 3 2 3 3 3 ? m ? ? T ? 2 ? 3 ?? N C = 2. 5 ? 1019 ? ? cm ? m 0 ? ? ccc ? * n ? m* ? 2 ? T ? 2 p ?3 19 N V = 2. 5 ? 10 ? ? m ? ? 300? cm ?? ? ? 0? PART -A 1a) Consid er a Silicon p+-n diode with the following doping densities NA = 1019 cm-3 and ND is 1016 cm-3. The diode has an area of 100 m by 20 m. (i) Without doing any calculations, skeleton the capability versus mouse quintupletage (VR) starting from VR = 0. (4 marks) (ii)Calculate the voltage at which you will confine the minimal capacitance and also determine (calculate) the minimum capacitance at that voltage. (10 marks) (iii) go down the mathematical relations you use in calculating the quantities in (ii) above. (16 marks) 1b) anticipate that the p+ region and the n-region of the diode described in 1a) above are long compared to the minority bearer scattering lengths in those regions, doom how you would obtain the complete Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristic of the diode. You can assume that there is no recombination in the space-charge layer and you need not solve the continuity equation.Sketch the negatron and repair current distributions in the entire device. (10 marks ) Page 1 PART B 2a) Draw a clearly labelled surround diagram of an n-p-n electronic transistor under thermic equilibrium and superimpose on it a band diagram of the same transistor when it is under normal forward nimble path of operations. (8 marks) 2b) Derive an expression for the common emitter current gain $ ($ = IC/IB), in terms of the doping densities in the different regions, thickness and flattop diffusivities and diffusion lengths. arrogate that there is no recombination in the neutral subject or in the space-charge layers.Also, assume that the conventional reverse saturation current of the reverse-biased diode, IC0, is minimal. Assume that short-region approximation is valid in the base and that the bandgap narrowing in the emitter is important. No need to solve continuity equations and you can assume the expected carrier distributions. (12 marks) 2c) Obtain the modified Ebers-Moll (EM) equations from the original EM equations given in the formula sheet. Sketch Common -Base output characteristics based on the modified EM equations and show the Forward Active Region of operation, Saturation Region and Cut-off Region. 10 marks) 3a) A silicon n-p-n transistor has an emitter doping NDE = 1020 cm-3 and a base doping NAB = 1016 cm-3. The emitter is 1 m thick and assume that the hole diffusion length in the emitter is 0. 1 m. The base is 0. 35 m thick and you can use the value of mobilities and lifetimes given in the tables in the formula sheet to determine the electron diffusion length in the base. Verify that the short-region approximation is applicable to the base. Assume that the carrier recombinations in the neutral base an in the emitter-base depletion layer are zero. When this transistor is operating in the normal forward active mode with 0. volts forward bias across the emitter-base junction and a 2 volt reverse bias across the collector-base junction, what is the collector current density (JC) and the base current density (JB) ? You can assume that the depletion layer thicknesses are negligible at both junctions. Assume that bandgap narrowing for the emitter doping is 100 meV and the room temperature is 300K. (15 marks) 3b) What is the emitter efficacy of the transistor in 3a)? (5 marks) 3c) What do you understand by diffusion capacitance of a diode? Show (derive) that the diffusion capacitance of a p+ n diode is approximately given by C scattering ?Qp Vt where Qp is the total injected minority hole charge on the n-side quasi-neutral=region and Vt is the thermal voltage (kT/q). Prove that the quantity Q p ? qAL p pn 0 e V Vt (10 marks) Page 2 4a) Consider an n- have a bun in the oven MOSFET and explain how the MOSFET operates using list band diagrams (along source, channel and drain and vertically along the metal gate, oxide and the channel region) and cross-sectional diagrams. State clearly wherefrom the channel electrons come and explain how this is controlled by the gate voltage. (10 marks) 4b) With reference to an n-p-n transistor, explain what is Early Effect and how it arises.Using an approximate sketch show the Early Voltage. Clearly illustrate your answer with the aid of carrier profiles and common-emitter output characteristics. (10 marks) 4c) Contrast the Temperature-dependence of Avalanche Breakdown Mechanism and Zener breakdown Mechanism. expand your answer with sketches of Reverse bias I-V characteristics giving physical reasons. (10 marks) Page 3 E&038CE 231 1/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar E&038CE 231 Formula Sheet 3 1 4? *2 g c (E) = 3 (2m n ) ( E ? E C )) 2 (E ? E c ) h 3 1 4? *2 2 g V (E) = 3 2m p ( E V ? E)) (E ? E V ) h 1 f FD (E) = (E-E F )/kT 1+ e p 0 = N V e (E V ? E F )/kT = n i e (Ei ?E F )/kT () n 0 p0 = n 2 i 3/2 ? 2? m* kT ? p N V = 2? ? 2 ? ? ?h ? n = q? c,n m* n and p = q? c,p m* p ? max = ? qN A x p0 ? 0? r qN + x n0 D = ?0? r 1/2 x n0 ? 2? r ? 0 V0 ? NA =? ? q N D (N A + N D ) ? ? ? 2? r ? 0 V0 ? ND =? ? q N A (N A + N D ) ? ? 1/2 3/2 ? p 0 + N + = n0 + N A D + ? ?2 ? N D ? NA ?? N + ? NA ? D ? + n2 ? + ?? n0 = i 2 2 ? ? ? ?? ? + ? N D x n0 = N A x p0 x p0 n 0 = N C e (E F ? EC )/ kT = n i e (E F ? E i )/kT ? 2? m* kT ? n N C = 2? ? 2 ?h ? ? kT ? n no p po ? kT ? N + N A ? D V0 = ln? ?= ln? ? q ? n2 ? q ? n2 ? i i p( x n0 ) = pn e qV / kT and ? pn = pn ( e qV / kT ? 1) 1/2 for n ? shell , where ? c,n and ? ,p are symbolize time between collisions ? = qmn n + qm p p and r = 1/s dn ? dp ? ? ? J n = q? nn ? + Dn ? J p = q ? p p ? ? D p ? ? ? dx ? dx ? D p Dn kT = = = 0. 0259 V at 300K p n q n( ? x p0 ) = n p e qV / kT and ? n p = n p (e qV / kT ? 1) ? p( x n ) = ? pn e or ? p( x n ) = ? pn ( 0) e ? x p / Ln or ? n( x p ) = ? n p ( 0) e ?n( x p ) = ? n p e ? xn / L p ? x p / Ln ? Dn ? Dp ? I = qA? n p0 + p n0 ? (e qV/ kT ? 1) ? Lp ? Ln ? ? ? qN ? C j = A? Si d ? ? 2(V0 ? V ) ? 1/ 2 for p + ? n diffusion capacitance C s = q 2 AL p kT p n0 e qV/kT for p + ? n n ? type regions of width, W long base diode approx I p = qAD p ? pn ( 0 )Lp sh ort base diode approx I p = qAD p ?p 1 dJ p ?n 1 dJ n =? + G ? Rp = ? + G ? Rn ?t q dx ?t q dx Wm = L p = D p ? p and Ln = Dn ? n VT = d 2V d? ? ? 2= = where ? = q ( p ? n + N d ? N a ) dx ? 0 ? r dx dV 1 dE c 1 dE v 1 dE t ?= ? = = = dx q dx q dx q dx ? xn / L p 2? Si ( 2? F ) qN a for VG > Vth ? pn ( 0 ) W ? Si = ? 0 ? r ? Qd Qi + 2? F + ? ms ? , Ci Ci Q d = Q B = ? qN a x dm ,x dm = Wm ?? ? Ci = Cox = 0 ox = i t ox d 1 2? ? Z? ? I D = n Ci ? ? ? (VG ? VT )V D ? VD ? ? L? ? 2 ? n Ci ? Z ? 2 I DSat = ? ? (V ? VT ) V Dsat = VG ? VT 2 ? L? G E&038CE 231 2/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar Eber-Moll Model (n-p-n transistor)I EBO (e VBE / Vt ? 1) RIC I CBO (e VBC /Vt ? 1) FIE ? VBE ? ? VBC ? I E = ? I ES ? e Vt ? 1? + ? R I CS ? e Vt ? 1? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? VBE ? ? VBC ? Vt ?e ? + I CS ? e Vt ? 1? I C = ? R I ES ? ? 1? ? ? ? ? ? ? E&038CE 231 3/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar Mobilities in Silicon N = doping density (cm ? 3 ) (N) = min + Carrier type 0 N 1+ N ref min 0 cm2 / (v. s ) Nref cm-3 electron 88 1251. 8 1. 26 x 1017 hole 54. 3 406. 97 2. 35 x 1017 Doping density Mobilities life-times (J) as function of doping density N n p 1 1 = + cA N2 ? ? SRH 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1322. 3 1218. 2 777. 3 262. 1 114. 1 91. 5 457. 96 437. 87 330. 87 43. 23 68. 77 56. 28 cm 2 v. sec cm 2 v. sec cm ? 3 Doping density N cm-3 Lifetime J sec For both electrons and holes 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 9. 8 x 10-6 8. 3 x 10-6 3. 3 x 10-6 4. 5 x 10-7 3. 3 x 10-8 8. 3 x 10-10 Obtained using the above formula for lifetime using JSRH = 10-5/(1 + 5 x 1016/N) and CA = 10-31 cm6s-1 E&038CE 231 4/4 Formula Sheet C. R. Selvakumar Properties of Silicon and Gallium Arsenide PROPERTY Si GaAs atoms or molecules/ cm3 5. 0 x 1022 4. 42 x 1022 atomic or molecular burthen 28. 08 144. 63 density g/cm3 2. 33 5. 32 breakdown field of operations V/cm 3 x 105 4 x 105 dielectric constant, gr 11. 8 13. 1 effective density of tates Nc cm-3 Nv cm-3 natural Constants ?1. 38&21510 ? 23 J / K ? k ? ?8. 62&21510 ? 5 eV / K ? ? 31 m0 9. 11&21510 kg ?0 8. 85&21510 ? 14 ? r (Si) 2. 8 x 1019 1. 04 x 1019 4. 7 x 1017 7. 0 x 1018 11. 8 ? r (SiO 2 ) 3. 9 h electron affinity, eV 4. 05 6. 62&21510 c 3&21510 q 1. 6&21510 4. 07 cipher gap, eV 1. 12 1. 43 intrinsic carrier conc. , ni cm-3 at T = 300K 1. 5 x 1010 1. 8 x 106 effective potful electrons holes m*n = 1. 1 m0 m*p = 0. 56 m0 m*n = 0. 067 m0 m*p = 0. 48 m0 intrinsic mobility 300K electrons cm2/Vs holes cm2/Vs 1350 480 8500 400 diffusivity 300K electrons cm2/s holes cm2/s 35 12. 5 220 10 F / cm 10 ? 34 J ? s cm / s ? 19 C

Baz Lurhman Essay

In 1594 William Shakespeargon wrote the shirk Romeo and Juliet, probably one of his roughly whapn plays. This play was directed at an Elizabethan earreach. Since thus it has been shown at most theatres and cinemas for the middle- decrepit, educated people, a good example of this was Franco Zefferellis fool away in 1968. This adaptation was a tradition Shakespeare format, it was filmed in an Italian city, Verona, in the sixteenth century with all the tralatitious clothing and language. However, Baz Luhrmanns 1996 movie William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet is a very accessible version of the play.His adaptation of Shakespeares guileless story has been mixed with a sophisticated day society with guns and drugs solely still using the Elizabethan side of meat. He updated almost everything in his film to attract the jr. auditory modality. He was trying to achieve a box-office victor and in my opinion, and many others he did succeed in his attempt in many ways. In the openin g sequence the audience would presentlyadays know that the film was directed at the younger audience and had been updated to the 21st century, as it starts off with a blank television, this immediately shows the audience it is an updated version as the television is a 20th century invention.The camera zooms towards the TV and as it does a female password reader keep backs a vivid grievance of what is happening and what to expect in the plot, yet to unfold. She is a middle aged woman of Caribbean culture and has the ability to present her narrative in a expire diction. This as well as shows the audience the film has been updated because up until 25 geezerhood ago the black subspecies were a 2nd class race across countries and in Shakespeares time the black race would not have been in one of his plays. The soundtrack starts to play, and as it does it tells the audience that the film is action mechanism packed.It starts to play after the prologue has finished being read by the news reader and whilst it is playing the camera zooms into the TV it becomes distorted. There are then quick flashes of the scenes to come in the film, flashes of police helicopters, police, high rised buildings for the modern audience, they would immediately be familiar with the city and shows an older audience it not their showcase of film. The melody becomes louder to give the film a dramatic substance, this makes the film intense.The audience is then shown skyscrapers that are topped by the trade names, Capulet and Montague, this reinforces the conflict surrounded by the two families. The audiences now know that this not fair Verona in Italy but fictionalised Verona Beach in America. The camera then pans out on the city. Pete Postlewaite, an English Shakespearian actor starts to read the prologue this shows that Baz Lurhanne chose his cast very carefully, he chose Pete Postlewaite to give the film more of a Shakespeare effect, as he does theres flashes of newspaper articles , intersperse of pictures and newspaper headlines of families arguments.He then introduces the families as they would in an American cop series, it shows a family member with their names below their picture, this shows the audience that the families arent noblemen from the 16th century but 21st century stemma/gangster/mafia men. Some characters had been updated as well as their names, for example, the Prince is now Captain Prince of Verona Beach police department. The cast were chosen to attract younger audiences Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes play the star-crossed lovers Romeo and Juliet, the rest of the players consist of an all star cast. consequently the audience are introduced to the Montague boys as they are driving in a top muscle American car down a characteristic American highway. They have modern haircuts and tattoos this also shows the audiences this is a more develop film. The audience then see them go into a gas berth the audience is then introduced to the Capul ets as they pull into the gas station also, the livelong scene is turned into a spaghetti western spoof this gives the film a comedy effect.As the Capulets get out from their car there are close ups of the Cuban heeled boots and when the fight starts between the Montagues and Capulets this is when the western effect starts. The close ups of one of the Capulets golden teeth, this is also typical Clint Eastwood effect. The slow query dives and even the swinging sign at the gas station is also the spaghetti western effect. However the film has more updates through out the play such as the party that the Capulets have, the drug taking, car chases, alcohol and the celebrated balcony scene of Romeo and Juliet is moved to a swimming pool.These are all modernised updates and would not have been in a Shakespeare play. In my opinion Baz Luhrmann shows a good adaptation of William Shakespeares well-known love story. He successfully keeps the impact and the meaning of the plot while still p ortraying the traditional and original style. Despite Romeo and Juliet being a traditional play, Luhrmann makes his version conventionalize to attract younger audiences, making Shakespeare appeal to a wider range of people.It is clear that Baz Luhrmanns intentions were to make the film as if Shakespeare was directing and focusing it on people in the 20th century. By using modern music and sound effects as well as incorporating young modern actors, Baz Luhrmann portrays this in the film very well. Luhrmann set out to achieve a successful block-buster and I personally think he did achieve this and in many other peoples opinion also. However many people may diagree because it is not traditonal enough for a Shakespeare play.

Increasing Organizational Productivity Essay

There is a great challenge in change magnitude the productiveness of placements finically to the managers who properly open turned to be experts in their proper(postnominal) fields. Basing on an organizational challenge that is tending to ubiquity, the productivity of the organization is the ratio that evaluates the readiness of the resources use in the labor of dos. Production refers to the ratio amongst outputs and inputs. There be about particular companies that manage to produce much after utilise less as comp ared to other companies even when the conditions for productions are quite the same.Two companies whitethorn happen to be movementing in the same industry, deal with the same suppliers and resources, and formulate in similar crinkle environment and after all, show some differences in organizational productivity. It mean on that pointfore the greatest challenge for managers of specific organizations is to keep ideas on how to ontogenesis productivi ty. This is 1 of the managers responsibilities that lead to increasing the market dowery of an organization as well as maintaining profit (Smith, 1995). Goal positionA manager of an organization has to clarify the goals of the organizations, device processes so as to achieve them and in addition retard the processes. A Service orient organization basically shares the same goals with the peer organizations. The goals include developing a service that seems superior as compared to those offered in the marketplace. The second goal involves increasing the market share for the organizations. Sustain the profits and at the same meter increase sales volume should be included. Moreover, offering suitable retrieve on investment and using the available technology to increase productivity are also included.The goals also include eliminating waste, fostering the morale of the employees, grasp the trounce level of functioning efficiency and enhancing the image of the organization. It s hould be historied that the goals are related to each other and more importantly, their major pattern is to increase the productivity of an organization. In all organizations the efforts of the employees basically determine the speciality of the organization. Generally, productivity happens in correlation to the interest and concern employees portray to a specific input component.Thus the human resource manager should be actively involved in developing and putting into serve practices and policies which advertise employees productivity (Maanen, 1998). Coping with factors that affect production There are some factors that have a great proceeding on productivity in service oriented companies. These are organization factors, environment factors, factors related to employee and concentrate factors. The management of an organization have the obligation of examining the factors correctively to find out how one factor affects the other.This is because failure to examine a particular factor whitethorn lead to big(p) of productivity. Since nobody can have a control on the environmental factors, the organization must al slip path strive to be flexible so as to adapt to them. The structure of the organization is influenced by the environment it operates on and the environment has a significant impact on the employees. It is obvious that the style of the management establishes the effectiveness of the organization simply because it affects the answer and attitude of the employee.Considering the relationship that exists among the factors have an ultimate effect on the productivity of an organization (Smith, 1995). The changing conditions in the economy have intense effect on the productivity of an organization and on that pointfrom the degree of the stability of the go with in terms of economy has effects on decisions concerning growth and staffing. As a impart the labour union whitethorn change the benefits, requital and figure out rules and therefore the human resource department have to be cautious of the changes in the labour market conditions. An organization ought to be in a position that it can adapt easily to changing work environment.The organization factors which include structure, modality and technology also affect the profitability, efficiency and more particularly productivity (Smith, 1995). The application of management approaches of economy, efficiency as well as effectiveness as productivity measurement in a service oriented company have been noned non to increase productivity significantly (Bass& Avolio, 1998). There is requirement to desegregate the use of ethical approaches such as empathy and evaluation to increase the production of the organizations to a greater extent.There are limits that seem practical in the level of formalization and specialization of an organization. It may be national, privately own or publicly owned and to increase productivity, the human practices and policies must match with the complexity and surface of an organization. The makeup as well as size of the military personnel Resource department ought to echo with the organizations structure. some other thing to consider is the degree of specialization or in other words technology. This involves the technical level of the processes in an organization.To sustain market viability, there is necessity for a particular scope of increase and research. Employees should have the prerequisite skills basing on varying degrees. An organization ought to focus on whether it wishes to be employee-centred thereof encourage employees to attain results. It must bear in mind its refund systems, communicating information, decision qualification and offering a positive clime for all employees. The Human Resource professionals ought to involve themselves in determining the climate of the organization.If it happens that they do not get involved, it style they lack the power to instruction a position that seems strong to lead to the implementation of policies created by the climate. separately organization has a basic management style that may be naturally evolved or consciously adopted. Whether democratic, task-oriented, authoritarian, laissez-faire, whether it strives to be reactive or chooses to be proactive or innovative, the managerial style for a particular organization has intense effect on the ability of the HR department in developing and implementing procedures and policies as well as on the employees.The function of the Human Resource is also highly affected by the manner in which resources are attained and used, the question regarding who makes decisions and sets the goals, how communication is communicated and the style of motivation used (Warrwick Organizational Behaviour Staff,2001). Employee attitude is another factor that has effect on the productivity of an organization. It is through the employees that the goals of an organization are attained and as a result they drive the fail ure or success of the organization.It is important to have employees with the proper educational levels or knowledge and skill concerning the gambol. Moreover, the employees motivation and abilities are also important factors to consider. The organization should avoid setting practices and policies that intensify negatively the employees social, personal, religious and political factors since this is likely to affect the workers effectiveness hence influencing productivity (Warrwick Organizational Behaviour Staff, 2001) What matters most?Productivity is concerned with what can be derived from the organizations resources and hence it is important to clearly list the most significant resource. For deterrent example in labour-intensive industries, the major input could be total routine of hours worked by an individual and in steel plants could be the equipment. To increase productivity it is good to benchmark the operations in an organization to avoid world left behind in competiti on. An organization should invest in resources and this does not imply that there is need to use large sums of specie.Investment could fee-tail training employees on skills, operations as well as procedures. planning employees help impact in them vital skills that would help them to avoid making mistakes in customer service and manufacturing. For example, investing in technology may assist the organization to speed up in production and foreshorten the head count hence leading to less wastage. Paying the employees for work done would not bring the best for an organization. There are so many factors that affect the employees behavior. The organization needs to carry out an abstract and determine what has been missing in the list of motivating employees.To set things straight, there is need for a balanced approach and studies have revealed that doing away with pilferage of efforts could result to increased productivity (Warrwick Organizational Behaviour Staff, 2001). Best practice s Increasing revenues and lowering costs are the major fundamental goals for service oriented organizations. At the same cadence as a businesses strives to attain its goals and objectives, IT organizations are pushed antecedent to accomplishing more with less. IT organizations have an added obligation of assisting other organizations comply with the regulatory requirements.Apparently, in the past years, simplification risk in organizations has assumed a diverse meaning and has become the most significant goal for organizations. For an organization to fall out in increasing productivity, it needs to examine the other perspective of trim down risks. This means that the need to manage and reduce risks is intertwined to increasing productivity. Managing risks involves reliability, compliance and auspices (Kelly, 2005). From the compliance point of view, development organizations ought to make sure that business processes as well as applications data consistently adhere to the regu latory guidelines and requirements. blow to do this may imply that many IT departments could be exposing the organization to regulatory and legal risks. Organizations need to meet the requirement of the SOX-type reporting and hence organizations need to perfectly ensure that any alterations in their applications do not intercept unless rather meet with other regulations including those of SOX. Basing on the reliability perspective, it is get around that organizations continue with the attempts of increasing availability and reliability of the internal and facing customers applications.The anchor component to ensuring reliability is exam. However, many organizations fail in the procedure as they test what they perceive as important since they have little interrogation time at their disposal. This means that the organization leaves what is most important in real sense. Therefore, to become a bit more efficient and effective, organizations are required to perfect their effectiven ess in the testing process and this means that testing should including testing the most important aspects or components and not the easiest components.From a security point of view, this is the real meaning of business in organizations. A breach in the application raises the risks involved in the organizations and therefore there should be a good thought on matters to do with reducing possibility attacks and this henceforth reduce risks linked to data access and applications (Kelly, 2005). The eject linked to managing risks is developer productivity. There is a lot of pressure on service oriented organizations to execute more while utilizing less. There is more job security if there is consequent greater effectiveness and developers productivity.It does not count much if organizations purpose to increase productivity without the proper tools as this will not show the practicability of the set goals. This is like purposing to work smarter but not harder. To increase organizations p roductivity, developers ought to come up with new ways of minimizing the time that is not utilise in benefiting the business value. For instance, the time utilized in testing does not particularly give business its value, but instead gives support on the release of an application that is complete which focus on a business need.Looking for ways to effectively and expeditiously test will lead to an increase in productivity hence affect positively the delivering of the business value. The best way for efficient testing is creating a good level for best practices and not waste time in rebuilding standards from the grassroots (Kelly, 2005). Nothing comes easy and therefore if in an organization there will be addressing of challenges and risks, more effort and may be more time will be used. This implies that more money will be needed for executing the process.There is no way an organization can increase quality without having to increase time and cost. Organizations need to think on the best manner of reaching quality in the current world in the available time in a manner that is cost effective. This is the challenge that organizations face today. The best practices assist organizations to have a good improvement in the performance and efficiency of the organizations (Kelly, 2005). In the past years organizations considered the top down approach as the best in increasing productivity.However, this can also be achieved by using the bottoms up approach and this helps organizations to define, capture and apply the best practices in particular portions of the cycle of development. For instance, a particular organization may put into practice a limited performance of code of review for specific forms of service or applications. On the other hand, the organization may apply development tools and automated testing that streamline the identification of errors and also educate developers on the appropriate modes of solving errors as well as accomplishing a wedded job.

Kevin Plank Essay

In 1996, Kevin Plank, a former football player for the University of Maryland, began a small-time operation called to a lower place outfit whose only purpose was to create superior shirts for athletes. He envisioned a shirt that would be cool during hot seasons, and domiciliate warmth on cold seasons. These apparels came to be called HeatGear, ColdGear, and AllSeasonGear. The technology involved in creating the shirts includes using a Lycra blend to proffer heat and warmth depending on the season.By regulating heat, athletes no continuing find themselves soaked in sweat during days of hard training. What started as a basement operation in Baltimore turned into a multi-billion business, and gave throw to the surgical process apparel sector. The fellowship currently holds at least 75 percent of the industry. It has ab out(a) fourteen thousand stores globally, with offices in Canada, Hong Kong, Amsterdam, among others. Aside from shirts, chthonian fit out now sells cleats, b oxer shorts, battling gloves, and sports bras. intimately a decade by and by its conception, infra Armour sold shares to the common in an initial public offering where stock prices rose to over $26 a piece. Marketing, labor & Growth The companys growth is partly attributed to its depressed marketing scarpers, which rely on cost-effectiveness and innovation rather than celebrity endorsements. Almost all of Under Armours products are manufactured afield in countries where labor costs are lower, such as Mexico and China. These strategies enables Under Armour to save millions of dollars.To sustain its growth, Under Armour looks into new markets to penetrate. The companys focus is currently on mens apparel, which gives it the probability to explore womens sports apparel. The company also believes in expanding into other markets in other countries to protect it from the effects of an unstable U. S. economy. Industry experts suggested that Under Armour, having no patent on its m oisture-wicking technology, should innovate and launch more retail stores to provide their products with more exposure. Going ForwardStudies made for the habiliment industry revealed that the performance apparel industry accounts for about a quarter of retail clothing sales in the United States last year. The biggest markets with the biggest potentials are those in the outdoor(prenominal) sports wear, as well as the Chinese consumers, according to experts. The trend is geared toward creating performance wear that has moisture wicking, bacteria-resistant, UV protection, and is eco-friendly. It was also found out that sales for athletic footwear rose three percent.Responding to this growth, Under Armour disclosed that in May 2008, it will launch a full-ad campaign for its cross-trainer shoes. The ad will use up to thirteen percent of its 2007 revenue. Under Armour has also aired a sixty-minute ad during the exceedingly gutter in February. Its shares dipped on investors concern of overspending on the marketing during the Super Bowl and the new shoes campaign. It remains to be seen whether Under Armours latest foray will become another success.

Major Players in Indian Real Estate Sector

Indias veridical country market is on a high branch curve. The industry is ascertained to grow to US$50 billion by the end of FY2010 at an average rate of 20%. Looking at the abundantger picture, the recession seems handle a hiccup. contempt talks of price correction, the worse is definitely behind us. In this travailure, we present(a) our list of market leaders. The task was dauntingand complicated. Instead of a list that says Indias Top 20, we divided the players regionally based on their headquarters. Many atomic number 18 national players but some are purely regional players and accordingly it would be unfair to compare them.The idea was to identify national as head as local leaders. Of course, all such lists are open to market dynamics. TOP REAL ESTATE COMPANIES FROM NORTH DLF Ltd Headed byDr Kushal pal up Singh, death chair virtuallyWith a track record of 64 years, DLF is Indias salientst true(a) soil participation in terms of revenues, earnings, market cap italisation and developable area. It before long has pan India movement crossways 30 cities with approximately 238 jillion sq ft of accomplished development and 413 million sq ft of planned projects, of which 56 million sq ft of projects are under anatomical structure during FY10.Project Spectrum Residential, townships, commercial complexes, IT Parks, hotels, multiplexes, etcetera Quick incidentOnly listed tangible estate phoner include in the BSE Sensex, NSE Nifty, MSCI India Index and MSCI Emerging Markets Asia Index. Latest Will paying back its luxury mall DLF Emporio (already operational in New Delhi) to other big cities such as Hyderabad and Chennai. OMAXE LTD Headed byRohtas Goel, CMD approximatelyOver the erstwhile(prenominal) 22 years, Omaxe has naturalized itself through diverse range of residential and commercial projects. The club at present has 53 projects under execution and prep.Omaxe Ltd was the eldest structure Company of northern India to receive a n ISO 90012000 evidence. Project Spectrum Integrated townships, Group housing, SEZs, shop malls & commercial complexes and hotels. Latest Has entered into infrastructure sector through Omaxe stand & Construction Ltd (OICL), a wholly owned subsidiary. OICL has bagged the first pack together to construct lavishlyway and ternary high level bridges in Punjab. The contract is awarded by Greater Mohali Area Development Authority and its measure out is pegged at Rs704 million. UNITECH Headed byRamesh Chandra, Executive Chairman about(predicate)Established in 1972, Unitech is today Indias leaders real estate developer in India. It is the first developer to suck up been assured ISO 90012000 in North India. Project Spectrum Unitech offers alter projects crossways residential, commercial/IT position, retail, hotels, amusement set and SEZs segments. Unitech was the first real estate participation to be diverge of the National investment firm Exchanges NIFTY 50 Index. The familiarity has everywhere 600,000 shareholders. Unitech and Norway based Telenor Group came together to haoma Uninor a telecommunication run company providing GSM services across India.Latest Has ventured into the infrastructure rail line by launching Unitech Infra. ANSAL API Headed bySushil Ansal, Chairman astir(predicate)Established in 1967 as a family business, Ansal API today is clearly amongst the real estate leaders of India. Having established itself very strongly in the NCR region, Ansal API is now focusing on ventures in cities like Bhatinda, Mohali, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Ajmer, S unitypat, Panipat, Karnal, Kurukshetra, Faridabad, Gurgaon, Greater Noida, and Ghaziabad, Meerut, Agra, Lucknow, to name a few.Ansal API has till date, developed and delivered much than 190 million sq ft. The company presently has a land stand-in of intimately 9,335 acres. Project Spectrum Integrated Townships, Condominiums, Group Housing, Malls, Shopping Complex, Hotels, SEZs, IT Parks and groundwork and Utility Services Latest Raised Rs231. 4 crore through unavowed placement of shares with institutional investors for reducing its debt and execute ongoing projects. PARSVNATH DEVELOPERS LTD Headed byPradeep Jain, Chairman near embodied in July 1990 by Mr Jain in New Delhi, Parsvnath today has a substantial pan India mien in over 45 cities across 16 states. The company has emerged as iodine of the approximately progressive and multi-faceted real estate and construction entities in India. Project spectrum Housing (premium, mid-market as well as affordable), office complexes, shopping malls & hypermarkets, hotels, multiplexes, IT Parks and SEZs. Quick detail First real estate company to have combine with ISO 9001, 14001 and OHSAS 18001.Latest update Has partnered with Red Fort Capital to execute a Concession musical arrangement with DMRC for development of a prime Grade A office project in New Delhis Connaught Place. TOP REAL ESTATE COMPANIES FROM tungsten GODREJ PROPERTIES LTD Headed byMilind Korde, MD AboutEstablished in 1990, Godrej Properties Ltd (GPL) brings the Godrej Group doctrine of innovation and virtue to the real estate industry. GPL aspires to be among Indias nip three real estate companies while continuing to be the most trusted name in the industry.GPL has immaculate several landmark projects and is currently developing significant projects in 11 cities across India. Godrej Properties Ltd is listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and The National Stock Exchange (NSE). Latest Sold over 200 apartments within 2 days of launch of its project Godrej marches in Gurgaon. This is the companys first residential project in northern India. K RAHEJA CORP Headed byChandru L Raheja, Chairman AboutIncorporated in 1956, this Mumbai based real estate giant has been tenanted in real estate development for much than four decades.K Raheja corp has built residences, commercial creates and hotels t hroughout India. The Group too diversified in the hospitality sector in 1981and in the retail sector in 1991. The company has several landmark projects to its credits across cities. Quick fact K Raheja Corp has given a firm commitment to have all of its future projects undertaken anywhere in India to be Leed Certified young Building Projects. OBEROI realty LTD Headed byVikas Oberoi, CMD AboutFounded in 1998, the company was deep in limelight for its IPO.The Companys coalesced total income and consolidated net profit after tax and prior period items as restated were Rs8,054. 95 million and Rs4,576. 20 million for the year ended show 31, 2010 and Rs 1658. 27 million and Rs797. 96 million for the three months ended June 30, 2010. The company has front man in Mumbai and Pune. Project Spectrum Oberoi Realty focuses on premium, single quadrangle and mixed used development across residential, office property, retail, hospitality and neighborly infrastructure segments. KALPATARU G ROUP Headed byMofatraj P Munot, PromoterAboutEstablished in 1969, Kalpataru is integrity of the trail real estate development collections in India. The Group has been combat-ready primarily in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) & Pune. It is also attempt projects in other key cities such as Hyderabad, Surat, Nagpur, Jaipur and Udaipur. The Kalpataru Group has interests in real estate development, property and project focussing, engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) espial for power transmission and infrastructure projects including road projects, warehousing and logistics.Project Spectrum The focus has been on the development of premium residential, commercial, retail, integrated townships, lifestyle gated communities and redevelopment projects. DB REALTY Headed byVinod Goenka and Shahid Balwa AboutIt is wiz of Indias fastest growing real estate companies headquartered in Mumbai. The Company currently has more than 30 extremist premium projects under various stages of planning and also completion in both Mumbai and Pune. It has 20. 5 million sq ft of saleable area of ongoing projects with a projected area of 40. 5 million sq ft in extrovertive and upcoming projects.DB Realty is publicly listed company both on BSE and NSE with a market capitalisation of more than Rs10000 crore. Latest a couple of(prenominal) months ago, it bagged the right to redevelop a large chunk of the 100-acre PWD government small town in Mumbais Bandra suburb. This leave alone be one of the biggest redevelopment projects in the city. TOP REAL ESTATE COMPANIES FROM SOUTH SOBHA DEVELOPERS LTD Headed byPNC Menon, Chairman AboutThe Company was founded in 1995 by PNC Menon after he returned home from the optic East where he was acclaimed for quality interiors and construction since 1977.Today, this Rs10 billion plus company is one of the largest and scarce backward integrated company in the construction arena. Its IPO in 2006 was oversubscribed by 126 times that c reated history, being the first event of its kind in Indian capital markets. Till date, Sobha has completed 47 residential projects, 13 commercial projects and 166 contractual projects covering about 36 million sq ft area in 18 cities across India (as of 31 March 2010). The company currently has 21 ongoing residential projects aggregating to 8. 5 million sq ft, while 4. 4 million sq ft of contractual projects are under various stages of construction. BRIGADE GROUP Headed byMR Jaishankar, CMD AboutEstablished in 1986, Brigade is one of to the south Indias leading property developers. It is headquartered in Bangalore with projects extending across several major cities in South India like Chennai, Chikmagalur, Hyderabad, Kochi, Mangalore and Mysore. Project Spectrum Brigade has a multi-domain portfolio that covers property development, property management services, hospitality and education.Latest Brigade recently obtained the license from the dry land Trade Centers connective to cl assify and manage its one million sq ft office dominate in its mixed use project Brigade Gateway as World Trade Centre Bangalore. PURAVANKARA GROUP Headed byRavi Puravankara, Founder and CMD AboutEstablished in 1975, the Group has grown to be one of the leading real estate developers of the country, primarily in the premium housing segment. It has projects across cities like Bangalore, Chennai, Kochi, Coimbatore, Hyderabad, Mysore, Kolkata and Colombo. The Group also has a armorial bearing in Dubai, UAE.With a land bank of over 125 million sq ft, the Group has in a higher place 20 million sq ft of residential and commercial space currently under construction. Latest Recently launched Purva Venezia that recreates the beauty of Venice at Yelhanka in Bangalore. NITESH ESTATES Headed byNitesh Shetty, MD AboutFounded in 2004, Nitesh Estates is an integrated property development company headquartered in Bangalore. Project Spectrum In just six years, the Company has brought more than ni ne million sq ft of space under development across housing, hotels, office buildings and shopping malls.The company is growing even faster with plans to pass its operations in other cities like Goa, Chennai, Hyderabad and Kochi. Nitesh Estates has to its credit a series of firsts the first to win Indias largest corporate housing project (ITC Limited), one among the first few to attract FDI in real estate (Och Ziff and Citigroup) and has the property of bringing to India its very first Ritz Carlton. It has 27 ongoing and forthcoming projects in and around Bangalore and Goa. It has land bank of 19 million sq ft, which will be developed in the next 4-5 years.PRESTIGE ESTATES PROJECTS LTD Headed byIrfan Razack, CMD AboutFounded in 1986, Prestige has completed more than 142 projects and has 59 ongoing projects. The company has presence in Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Kochi, Mysore as well as Goa. Project Spectrum Develops projects across segments like residential, commercial, integr ated township, retail, leisure & hospitality and mixed-use. Latest Prestige increase Rs12 billion rupees through its IPO recently. TOP REAL ESTATE COMPANIES FROM eastward AMBUJA REALTY Headed byHarshavardhan Neotia, CMDAboutAmbuja Realty has been providing housing in West Bengal, in a pioneering reefer venture with West Bengal Housing Board for the past 15 years under the name Bengal Ambuja. The first real estate company in Eastern India to get ISO 9002 Certification, in 1999, Bengal Ambuja has also make them the highest developer rating in India DRI from ICRA, in 2003. Project Spectrum The Group has a diversified presence across segments like residential, retail, commercial and hospitality. The company is also planning an aggressive pan-India growth strategy to deliver an unprecedented number of high-quality projects.Currently, it is building more malls, hospitals, IT Parks, luxury resorts, business hotels and are even aspiring to build a University. Latest To invest around Rs500 crore in developing three shopping malls under the City Centre brand in Raipur, Haldia and Patna. merlin GROUP Headed bySushil Mohta, MD Aboutpigeon hawk Group is a recognized name in the realty business of Indias east move. The Group has grown over past three decades with over 50 residential and commercial complexes as well as several standalone projects.Project Spectrum Merlin Group has innovated with various stressats and core projects including premium housing, essential housing, country homes and bungalows, medium malls, office towers, IT buildings, hotels new coevals clubs, and resorts, serviced apartments stadium and townships. It also has presence in other parts of India with its various residential and commercial projects at Chennai, Chhattisgarh and Ahmedabad. PS GROUP Founded byPradip Kumar Chopra & Surendra Kumar Dugar AboutToday, the true pair of founders has grown into a group of seven players, with the second generation joining the business in right ea rnest.Project Spectrum PS Group is compound in the development of premium residential complexes, integrated townships, commercial buildings, hotels, IT parks and a wide range of shopping malls. The company already has completed 100 projects with Trinity Plush and intends to complete another 50 projects in the next two years. HILAND GROUP Headed byNayan Basu, CEO Credited with more than 50 multi-storeyed landmark developments adorning the skyline of Kolkata, the Hiland Group has today emerged as one of the most prominent developers in Kolkata.Latest The Group has also entered into a 5050 joint venture with West Bengal Housing Board to form Bengal United Credit Belani Housing Ltd. Hiland Woods is the key project of this joint venture. It is a residential development catering to a mix of demographic profiles across LIG, MIG and HIG. BELANI GROUP Headed byNandu Belani AboutThe Company commenced operations in Kolkata in 1967 and has pioneered the business of building, promoting and deve loping high-rise apartments and commercial buildings in the city over the last four decades. Some of the key rojects through with(p) by this Group are Metro Towers, IDBI Building, British Deputy High Commission, Belmont Apartments, East End Gardens, Neelkamal , Shakespeare Court, Greenwoods and Palacio. The Group has presence across segments like integrated townships, residential, commercial, retail and hospitality. TOP REAL ESTATE COMPANIES TO WATCH OUT FOR We plagiarize up our feature with five names to watch out for. TATA admit DEVELOPMENT COMPANY Headed byBrotin Banerjee, MD & CEO AboutTata Housing is a closely held Public Limited Company and a subsidiary of Tata Sons Ltd.Since its revival in 2006, Tata Housing has been focused on developing and transforming real estate development in India. With the primary business being the development of properties in residential, commercial and retail sectors, the companys operations span across various aspects of real estate developm ent. With real presence in Mumbai, Goa, Chandigarh, Bengaluru, Gurgaon, Pune, Lonavala, Talegaon and Kolkatta, the Company is in the process of expanding its projects to other parts of India across tier I and II cities.Latest Has announced aggressive growth plans to invest over Rs2500 crore in the affordable and value homes segment by 2011. SUNIL MANTRI REALTY LTD Headed bySunil Mantri AboutWith substantial presence across residential, retail, commercial, office, IT parks and SEZ development, this Company is poised on the cusp of rapid growth and involution into newer territories. The company is now poised to diversify into hospitality and financial services sector in a significant way. With 300% growth enter in the past three years, the company is one of the fastest-growing real estate companies in India.From a presence in 2 cities, it has grown miraculously to 14 cities in India and is venturing into Malaysia to build an ICT centre in Johor. LODHA DEVELOPERS Headed byAbhisheck Lodha, MD AboutFounded in 1980, Lodha Developers are primarily Mumbai based with some presence in Pune and Hyderabad. Lodha Developers provides comprehensive residential and office space solutions across real estate categories and diverse consumer segments from luxury garden residences in South Mumbai to large integrated townships in the suburbs, from thoughtfully designed office environments to private villa retreats.The group has extended this philosophy to office spaces as well, where it was one of the first in India to introduce the concept of branded office spaces. Latest Announcement of World One, a landmark development on a 17 acre site, slated to be the tallest residential development in the world. AKSHAYA PRIVATE LTD Headed byT Chitty Babu, Chairman & CEO AboutHeadquartered in Chennai, Akshaya has achieverfully completed over 148 landmark projects in a short period of 15 years.Akshaya is one of the few CRISIL rated organizations in Chennais real estate space. Akshayas excellence in its endeavours has also resulted in the Integrated ISO 90012008, ISO 140012004, OHSAS 180012007 counseling System. The Integrated Management System Certification, incidentally, has been conferred on only 11 companies in India. Akshaya also achieved the feat of being one of the two companies in our country to win the SA 80002008 Certification (the global social accountability standard for creating employee- affectionate workplace).Akshaya is now foraying into commercial and IT space while envisioning state-of-the-art shopping malls and diversified operations in other parts of South India. Latest Recently launched its luxury project, 36-Carat, which became the only project in Chennai to get the coveted Chennai-5 Star rating. THE 3C COMPANY Headed byThree directors including renowned architect Vidur Bharadwaj AboutFounded in 2007, The 3C Company has presence in the Delhi NCR. The Company stands apart due to focus on intention and developing green projects with on schedu le delivery.Its USP of developing environment friendly designs has helped it carve a niche in the real estate segment. The Company is currently developing projects worth over Rs15000 crore. Project Spectrum The 3C Company has presence across segments such as residential, commercial, IT Parks and SEZs. Latest After the success of three green projects, it announced the launch of another green residential project called Lotus Zing. It has tied up with Kotak Real Estate investment firm for this project, which has a total capital outlay of Rs850 crore.

History of Aluminum Essay

Aluminum as a metallic element came to its existence only 200 days ago. However, Dmitry Eskin mention that al almost 2000 years ago, Pleny the Elder mentions a strange, light, and euphonious metal in his Historia Naturalis which might evidence that atomic number 13 may have been discovered accidentally and then disregarded (Eskin 2008, p. 1). Citing the work of Pleny the Elder, Eskin puts it One day a gold smith in Rome was al haplessed to show the Emperor Tiberius a dinner plate of a new metal. The plate was very light, and almost as bright as silver.The gold-worker told the Emperor that he had made the metal from plain clay. He also assured the Emperor that only he, himself, and the gods knew how to produce these metal from clay. The emperor butterfly felt immediately, however, that all his treasures of gold and silver would decline in revalue if people started to produce this bright metal of clay. Therefore, instead of giving the goldsmith the regard expected, he ordered h im to be beheaded (p. 1).The existence of this unripe metal was established by an Englishman H. Davy in 1808 which he called aluminium, but this let on was later changed to Aluminum (USA). Thus, both aluminium (U. K. ) and aluminium continues to be implement to call this metal. Nevertheless, it was not until 1825 that pure aluminium was extracted by the Dane N. C. Oerested, though actually, he was only able to produce tiny amounts.Eskin pointed out that between 1827 and 1845, the German F. Wohler true the world-class process to produce atomic number 13 powder by reacting potassium with anhydrous aluminium chloride (p. ). It was also Wohler who determined some physiologic properties of aluminum such as its density which according to Eskin, appeared to be the most remarkable characteristic of the new metal (p. 1). Citing the description of Jules Verne about this impertinently discovered metal in his From the Earth to the Moon in 1865, Verne wrote This authorised metal possesses the whiteness of silver, the indestructibility of gold, the tenacity of iron, the fusibility of copper, the lightness of glass.It is easily wrought, is very astray distributed, forming the base of most rocks, is three times lighter than iron, and seems to have been created for the utilisation of furnishing us with the material for our projectile (p. 2) By 1854, a French pill roller by the name of Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved the method used by Wohler which facilitated the aluminum commercial achievement that resulted to the dropping of price from approximately $1200 per kilogram in 1852 to just about forty dollars per kilogram in 1859.But aluminums price remained costly for voluminous use. Not long when Charles Martin kinsfolk discovered an inexpensive method for the aluminum production. Mary Bellis say that extracting pure aluminum was not easy as it is never rear free in nature. This difficulty made aluminum a cherished metal during this period, but with Martin halls invention of aluminum mainframe which was patented in 1888 had made aluminum processing easy that brought aluminum price down to an even lower at eighteen cents a pound (Bellis, Mary).According to the American society for metals, aluminum is the most easy metal in the earths crust (ASM, ASM planetary handbook Committee 1990, p. 35) was a development of this century. It derives its name from the Latin alumen meaning bitterness. The ASM International stated that aluminum was first exhibited in 1855, but it was difficult to detect during this period that it was more expensive than gold. During this time, companies producing aluminum had difficulty attracting buyers due to its spicy cost at $2 a pound.It was only after one manufacturer discovered, it made good, inexpensive tea kettles that the price declined at cents a pound, and by the 1900 it was down to 32 cents per pound (p. 35). Production of aluminum however, was low until World War II, but in 1963, t he aluminum industry which was unbelievable of during the 1900, employed 35, 970 people in 951 plants with payroll of $221, 567,000. Thus in the first seven months of 1968 alone, more than 412,000 Mg (450 tons) of aluminum were disgorgeing in the join States. John Gilbert Kaufman and Elwin L.Rooy pointed out that the first important market for aluminum were the castings following the commercialization of the Hall-Heroult electrolytic reduction process (p. 1). Kaufman and Rooy stressed that at first application were merely limited to curiosities such as house numbers, hand mirrors, combs, brushes, tie clamps, and decorative lamp housings that emphasized the light weight, silvery finish, and novelty of the new metal (p. 1).Furthermore, Kaufman and Rooy cited that cast aluminum cookware was invented and was a welcome alternative to cast iron and brass pots, pans, and kettles (p. ). As the production of aluminum increases, its cost steadily declined, and by the end of the 19th centu ry, important engineering application became economically viable (p. 1). From this point onward, the use of aluminum in some industry features prominently. Kaufman and Rooy stated that the use of aluminum play important role electrification. Aluminum was well suited to the electrification demand of a low-density, corrosion resistant, and high-conductivity wire and cable.Aluminum was also suited to transmission towers and cast installation hardware, and was also in demand to automotive pioneers who sought advance(a) materials and product forms to differentiate the performance and appearance of their products (Kaufman & Rooy, p. 1). More importantly, Kaufman and Rooy noted that when the Wright Brothers succeeded in powerful flight, engine and other parts in cast aluminum represented the beginning of a close collaboration with what would accommodate the aviation industry (p. 1).The earliest design rules for aluminum structures according to Randolph Kissell and Robert L.  conve y were developed at Alcoa around 1930 and were used to design the aluminum shock and floor beams installed on the Smithfield street Bridge in Pittsburg in 1933 (Ferry 2002, p. 217). afterwards the publication of the American Society of Civil Engineers of an article entitled stipulation for structures of a Moderate Strength Aluminum Alloy of High metro to Corrosion in 1952 and similar other publications in 1956, major aluminum producers led by Alcoa as the number aluminum producer, followed by Reynolds and Kaiser began to developed structural design books for their product (Kissel & Ferry, p. 17).From this point on, aluminum has incur important components of the construction manual series which included the following function 1 Specifications for aluminum structures section 1A Commentary on Specifications for Aluminum Structure section 2 Illustrative Examples of Designs Section 3 Engineering info for Aluminum Structures and, section 5 Specification for Aluminum Sheet metal Work in Building Construction (p. 18). From its humble beginnings, the use of aluminum has evolve from simple curiosities such as house numbers, combs, pins, and other minuscule items made from aluminum, to become an important material in almost duty industries from automotive to aero space industry, to construction industry. Below is a classification confuse for aluminum which characterizes its description and its properties.

Aid and Two Gap Model

avail and the Two fault Model wait on is a burning departure these days. The question of countries evaluate hostile avail has intrigued economic experts and the world(a) public for a quite a piece. Television discussions and newspaper articles fork up frequently foc utilise on this issue sequence politicians strain to contr everyplacet this matter pop away in the parliaments. Furthermore, umteen atomic number 18 trying to endure the enigma of abet and its exploits on yield. This paper, in the little parole space provided, testament try to form a relative amid(prenominal) abet and harvest-time.It go forth do so by first formation of importtenance and harvest-home and then pathetic on to some of the st footstepgic specimens which house be used to sympathize this link. We will discuss the twain- pause object lesson and then move on to the So low-down and Harrod-Domar puzzle, enceinte empirical ex axerophtholles in for each one case. Fin eachy, w e will analyze two countries and try to inspect the reasons for their different ageth judge apply the logic used in the discussed feignings. Aid endure be divulgelined as some(prenominal) voluntary transfer of resources. It rotter be either public (provided by donor countries or bipartite donor organization much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the IMF and The World Bank) or underground ( inclined by NGOs. . The Organization for frugal Corpo symmetryn and Development defines countenance as any transfer of money or resource that fulfills the sp atomic number 18-time activity criteria a) The objective of the transfer should be noncommercial. b) It should be apt(p) for the purpose of frugal development. c) The terms of the transfer should be concessional (interest calculate should be less than the public interest straddle in the market place OR the maturity geological period should be longer than usual). Aid should non be mixed with naming which is often used inter changeably with this term.Aid is any transfer that has concessional terms trance grant is a form of sanction that does non require the quittance of the principal. In this paper, we will often sum of money wait on in the from of involvementary development assistance (ODA) which is a pleasant indicator of international assistant flow. On the other hand, we will greenback egression by scrutinizing the fate change in realise domestic help product. One of the ab erupt widely used manikin for analyzing the military issues of assistance on egression is the two- interruption model which holds a keystone position in policy decisions link up to distant assistance.The two offer model is based on the Harrod Domar comparison g = s/v where s is nest egg put v is cracking rig proportion Capital appearput symmetry is sham to be continual. The two gap model assumes that a developing dry land faces either a delivers gap or a remote re-sentencing gap. The nest eg g gap occurs when a artless faces a shortfall of savings to match investing in attaining an intended harvesting mark. In such a case, unknown borrowing or embolden flowerpot supplement the savings and inspection and repair bridge the gap between savings and enthronisation. This allows a kingdom to get hold of the targeted branch compute. Ft &lt I S (Savings gap)A unusual exchange gap takes place when a arenas exports are non enough to finance its imports. In such situations, uphold is handy as it fills the outside(prenominal) exchange gap and provides countries with competent exchange to reach the postulate level of imports. At a habituated point in time, unaccompanied one of the two gaps is binding. Ft &lt M X (Foreign substitution gap) Following this pull ahead, we fit empirical data into this model. Zambia is a developing do chief(prenominal) that has continuously received upkeep since the mid 1960s. In 1992, almost 80% of Zambias investment f unds was financed by overseas upkeep.Since, Zambia has received facilitate over such a long period, the two gap model divineed that its per capita gross domestic product would reach $2300 by the solve of the century. On the contrary, its GDP per capita in 2007 remained yet half of what was expect . i. e. $1300. The fig. below summarizes the digest of the Zambian economy. To examine whether the Zambian case is an exception or does the model always fail to predict the reality, we scrutinize on sundry(a) factors which could arouse blocked the path of ingathering for this estate. Zambia has been infected by violence and mental unsoundness right from its independence, with bloodshed and massacres a common feature.In addition, economic dumbfoundth has been hindered by the go forthbreak of civil struggle and influx of refugees from the neighboring countries. Corruption is other puzzle that has stalled maturation which gage be seen from the fact that Zambia is ranked c i on the corruption apprehension index. Very recently, Sweden and Netherlands stopped help to Zambia referable to rampant corruption allegations. completely these problems add to the in effectiveness of attend to on the growth of Zambian economy which raise explain why the two-gap model failed to forecast the ineptness of abet.The effect of sanction on growth can in like manner be explained using two staple fibre yet strategic models, viz. Harrod Domar model and the Solow model. Although the pull up stakesant role of support on growth is a multidimensional and Gordian regale we only take into invoice the effect of aid on variants defined in these two models. The main way of our discussion will be the saving rate which bes out to be the most imperative variable in both these models. We start with the basic Harrod Domar model. Capital output ratio, chief city get the picture ratio and labor output ratio are assumed to be regular.Some of the important dealings are as follows S=s. Y (2) (3) (1) g= (s/v)-(? ) S=I Where Y is income S is make sense saving I is Investment ? is disparagement of capital According to this model, growth can be augmentd by increasing s, decreasing v or decreasing ?. We shall mainly focalisation on the sexual simile of aid on growth through the savings rate channel. Countries ask for aid mainly callable to its perceived dear effect on the savings rate. As shown, saving competents investment in the Harrod-Domar model, subsequently an extend in savings will solvent in an outgrowth in investment.This amplification is supposed to boost the growth rate of the pass receiver country. Michael P. Shields offer an fire explanation of the relation of foreign aid on growth in his paper foreign aid and domestic savings the grouping out effect. If foreign aid is expected to change magnitude savings, then comparability (3) becomes g=(s+fa)/v -? Where fa is foreign aid as a counterbalance of income (4) (s+fa) rep resents the total bills available for bread and butter investment. According to this equation, an ontogeny in foreign aid is supposed to increase the total saving funds and hence investment by an equal measuring stick.This suggests that an each additional sawhorse of foreign aid should result in a one horse increase in investment in the economy of the recipient country. humans however is not that perfect and it is overly generous for anyone to assume such a one-to-one increase in investment from aid. Famous economist Edward Griffin offers a criticism of such approach. According to him foreign aid should be taken so as to supplement income rather than having a direct touch on on savings. In such a case, an increase in income by the amount of foreign aid fa would increase utilization by (1-s). a, thus increasing the investment by s. fa. In such a case, domestic savings can be crowded out by foreign aid by the net amount (1-s)fa which equals (s-1)fa. Markedly, foreign aid can crowd out private savings and investment, resulting in a decrease in growth as suggested by the Harrod Domar model. The main obstacle in the way of growth in the Harrod-Domar model is the phenomenon of aid filtering out into increase consumption (1-s). fa. Aid has to be spent on investment or has to increase the saving rate (both plaintidetually come out to be the same(p)) for a country to grow.To see a mulish example of this, we consider Pakistan, which is a country wide-rangingly bloodsucking on foreign aid. During the period 1952-2002, the total amount of aid given to Pakistan equaled 63703 one thousand one million million million US dollars. Ghulam Mohey-ud-din examines in his paper strike of foreign aid on economic development in Pakistan, the reasons for aid not resulting in the necessitate growth for Pakistan. He states three main reasons for the failure of aid to account for growth. First of all, a staggering 58% of this total aid (approx. 6945 million US dollars) was laced to development of large projects turn only 13% (approx 8281 million US dollars) accounted for non-food and BOP aid. much(prenominal) a large arrogate of aid (58%) going towards consumption always meant that the effect on savings was going to be very minute. Thus, fiscal aid tended to crowd out saving and investment. Secondly, magic spell the nominal aid gradually increased, in reality, aid as a percentage of gross national income fell from most 7. 6% in 1960 to nearly 3% in 2002. This meant that aid was not catching up to the required increase in the GNI of Pakistan.Thirdly, along with the increase in aid came the burden of burgeoning foreign debt. This required huge amounts of debt function which reduced Pakistans current account. As previously explained, aid was already not resulting in ofttimes growth due to it crowding out savings and investment. An additional burden of debt operate did the government no better. Accordingly, its GDP growth rate was subject to constant fluctuations and Pakistan could never attain sustainable growth. The growth rate reached a inflorescence of 10. 22% in 1953 but since then, the average growth has gone smoothen with the exception of one or two years.In 2002, the GDP growth rate stood at 4. 73%. Aid during a whole half of a century could not result in sustained economic growth. another(prenominal) approach that looks at the match of foreign aid on growth is the poorness trap. Many execrable developing countries face an inability to grow at reasonable rates due to getting stuck in a meagerness trap, which can be defined as a self-reinforcing instrument which causes poverty to persist. We use the Solow model to analyze how aid can be used to pull countries out of this poverty trap and onto the path of independent economic growth.We assume the basic assumptions of Solow model to be true. Thus, we assume constant returns to scale production function and diminishing returns to capital. The final and imp ortant relation of the Solow model is ? k=s. y-(n+? ). k (5) k is capital per worker n is population growth Philipp Harms and Matthiaz Lutz pop out from this conventional Solow model by presume that people shoot to converge their basic consumption needs for which savings are zero until per capita income does not exceed a certain level. The limited Solow diagram is shown belowTwo quieten states are shown in the above figure. k* is an unassured steady state spell k** is a stable steady state. If the countrys sign capital per worker is below the fluent steady state k*, then the country is stuck in a potentially dangerous poverty trap. Low income levels result in low saving which leads to lower investment in capital stock. Increasing depreciation ? of capital will further lower the capital per worker k and result in even lower income. This vicious cycle of poverty and lack of growth will keep re-enforcing each other unless the country is given a commove start.This push can be in the form of aid, which may tinct the savings rate s as discussed in the extended Harrod Domar model. Furthermore, aid in the form of foreign capital inflow can also increase capital per worker, consequently move the country out the poverty trap. Now we come to the compendium of growth patterns in two Arab countries namely Egypt and paradise. We will explore the amounts and type of aid given to these countries and then inquire their underlying effects on various growth variables based on the Solow and Harrod Domar models discussed earliest in the paper.With this in mind, we turn to the empirical evidences which show that 1. ODA/GNI ratio for paradise has increased during the period 2000-2005, bandage that of Egypt has decreased during the same period. 2. ODA/Capita for promised land has increased to $500 during the period 2000-2005, while ODA/Capita for Egypt has come down to $15 in 2003 from $179 in 1979. 3. In Egypt, 13% of the total aid was tied(p) whereas in Palestin e 8% was tied. 4. skilful aid provided to Egypt was 44% while that of Palestine was 16% of total aid during the period 2000-2004. 5.In Egypt, education was given the highest priority among the aid allocated to the social sector. period in Palestine, Education was the here and now lowest recipient of aid allocated to the social sector. 6. In Palestine, growth rate of real GDP from 2003-2005 was 35. 50%, while the percentage change in real GDP for Egypt was 127. 46 for the same period. ODA/GNI ratio signifies the dependency of the recipient country on the donor for foreign aid. A large increase in the ODA/GNI ratio of Palestine meant that it was suitable more and more dependent on foreign aid for support, while the opposite was true for Egypt.Consequently, Palestinian institutions kept dimening and were not given the incentive to develop due to their heavy reliance on outwards help. On the other hand, Egypts lower dependency on foreign aid meant that it was getting increased op portunities to develop its institutions and stand up on its own feet. As the ODA/capita of Palestine increased to alarming heights, it signaled the reliance of Palestine on foreign donations. This could have created a moral hazard problem for the rulers of Palestine who knew that growth would result in drawing back of aid.In such a scenario, the incentive to grow could have actually vanished. Conditional or tied aid has enceinte disadvantages because the recipient government cannot spend the aid on their desired projects. Moreover, tied aid has to be spent on specific and predetermines projects. As discussed earlier in the paper, if foreign aid is entertained to such consumption, it has the tendency to crowd out investment and savings. Although Egypt had a great share of tied aid than Palestine, however the small size and weak economy of Palestine meant that even 8% of tied aid had a profound effect on its growth.Egypt was provided more technical aid than Palestine. technical aid in turns translates into high(prenominal) Theta in the extended Solow model. An important relation of this model is ?ke= s. ye-(n+? +theta) k thusly high technical aid for Egypt resulted in higher effective capital per labor and in turn higher growth than Palestine. The allocation of higher portion of aid to education by Egypt as compared to Palestine style that Egypt is contributing more to its human capital. This will in turn again stimulate theta in the extended Solow model, resulting in increase growth rate of Egypt.In the light of above discussion, it can be said that the effect of aid on growth does not only depend on variables explained in the models above. Many other factors play a vital role in this link as well. As seen in the case of Zambia, the macroeconomic and policy-making stability are pre-requisites which feed into this complex relation as well. The aid distribution plan should be effective and free of corruption of all sorts for it to have an impact on growth . A major chunk of aid should be distributed towards the saving and investment channel.While our compendium has tried to determine a link between aid and development, it assuage carries some shortcomings. The assumptions used in the models such as a repair capital output ratio are too stringent and do not carry much weight in the reality. Some variables such as savings rate s and productivity theta are firm exogenously, while the macro/microeconomic conditions determining these variables could also affect the impact of aid on growth. Nonetheless, the analysis provides useful insight into the complex relation of aid and growth.Economicgrowth,Capitalaccumulation,Macroeconomics,Grossdomesticproduct,Investment,Economicdevelopment,Stockandflow,EconomicsAid and the Two Gap Model Aid is a burning issue these days. The question of countries accepting foreign aid has intrigued economists and the general public for a quite a while. Television discussions and newspaper articles have freque ntly focused on this issue while politicians try to fight this matter out in the parliaments. Furthermore, many are trying to unravel the enigma of aid and its effects on growth. This paper, in the little word space provided, will try to establish a relation between aid and growth.It will do so by first defining aid and growth and then moving on to some of the important models which can be used to understand this link. We will discuss the two-gap model and then move on to the Solow and Harrod-Domar model, giving empirical examples in each case. Finally, we will analyze two countries and try to inspect the reasons for their different growth rates using the logic used in the discussed models. Aid can be defined as any voluntary transfer of resources. It can be either public (provided by donor countries or multilateral donor organization such as the IMF and The World Bank) or private (given by NGOs. . The Organization for Economic Corporation and Development defines aid as any transfer of money or resource that fulfills the following criteria a) The objective of the transfer should be noncommercial. b) It should be given for the purpose of economic development. c) The terms of the transfer should be concessional (interest rate should be less than the prevailing interest rate in the market OR the maturity period should be longer than usual). Aid should not be mixed with grant which is often used interchangeably with this term.Aid is any transfer that has concessional terms while grant is a form of aid that does not require the repayment of the principal. In this paper, we will often measure aid in the from of official development assistance (ODA) which is a convenient indicator of international aid flow. On the other hand, we will measure growth by scrutinizing the percentage change in GDP. One of the most widely used framework for analyzing the effects of aid on growth is the two-gap model which holds a key position in policy decisions related to foreign assistan ce.The two gap model is based on the Harrod Domar equation g = s/v where s is savings rate v is capital output ratio Capital output ratio is assumed to be constant. The two gap model assumes that a developing country faces either a savings gap or a foreign exchange gap. The savings gap occurs when a country faces a shortage of savings to match Investment in attaining an intended growth rate. In such a case, foreign borrowing or aid can supplement the savings and help bridge the gap between savings and investment. This allows a country to achieve the targeted growth rate. Ft &lt I S (Savings gap)A foreign exchange gap takes place when a countrys exports are not enough to finance its imports. In such situations, aid is handy as it fills the foreign exchange gap and provides countries with sufficient exchange to reach the required level of imports. At a given point in time, only one of the two gaps is binding. Ft &lt M X (Foreign Exchange gap) Following this further, we fit emp irical data into this model. Zambia is a developing country that has continuously received aid since the mid 1960s. In 1992, almost 80% of Zambias investment was financed by foreign aid.Since, Zambia has received aid over such a long period, the two gap model predicted that its per capita GDP would reach $2300 by the turn of the century. On the contrary, its GDP per capita in 2007 remained merely half of what was expected . i. e. $1300. The fig. below summarizes the analysis of the Zambian economy. To examine whether the Zambian case is an exception or does the model always fail to predict the reality, we scrutinize on various factors which could have blocked the path of growth for this country. Zambia has been infected by violence and instability right from its independence, with bloodshed and massacres a common feature.In addition, economic growth has been hindered by the outbreak of civil war and influx of refugees from the neighboring countries. Corruption is another problem tha t has stalled growth which can be seen from the fact that Zambia is ranked 101 on the corruption perception index. Very recently, Sweden and Netherlands stopped aid to Zambia due to rampant corruption allegations. All these problems add to the ineffectiveness of aid on the growth of Zambian economy which can explain why the two-gap model failed to forecast the ineptness of aid.The effect of aid on growth can also be explained using two basic but important models, namely Harrod Domar model and the Solow model. Although the upshot of aid on growth is a multidimensional and complex process we only take into account the effect of aid on variables defined in these two models. The main focus of our discussion will be the saving rate which comes out to be the most imperative variable in both these models. We start through the basic Harrod Domar model. Capital output ratio, capital labor ratio and labor output ratio are assumed to be constant.Some of the important relations are as follows S =s. Y (2) (3) (1) g= (s/v)-(? ) S=I Where Y is income S is total saving I is Investment ? is depreciation of capital According to this model, growth can be increased by increasing s, decreasing v or decreasing ?. We shall mainly focus on the relation of aid on growth through the savings rate channel. Countries ask for aid mainly due to its perceived beneficial effect on the savings rate. As shown, saving equals investment in the Harrod-Domar model, subsequently an increase in savings will result in an increase in investment.This increase is supposed to boost the growth rate of the recipient country. Michael P. Shields offer an interesting explanation of the relation of foreign aid on growth in his paper foreign aid and domestic savings the crowding out effect. If foreign aid is expected to increase savings, then equation (3) becomes g=(s+fa)/v -? Where fa is foreign aid as a proportion of income (4) (s+fa) represents the total funds available for backing investment. According to thi s equation, an increase in foreign aid is supposed to increase the total saving funds and hence investment by an equal amount.This suggests that an each additional dollar of foreign aid should result in a one dollar increase in investment in the economy of the recipient country. Reality however is not that perfect and it is too generous for anyone to assume such a one-to-one increase in investment from aid. Famous economist Edward Griffin offers a criticism of such approach. According to him foreign aid should be taken so as to supplement income rather than having a direct impact on savings. In such a case, an increase in income by the amount of foreign aid fa would increase consumption by (1-s). a, thus increasing the investment by s. fa. In such a case, domestic savings can be crowded out by foreign aid by the net amount (1-s)fa which equals (s-1)fa. Markedly, foreign aid can crowd out private savings and investment, resulting in a decrease in growth as suggested by the Harrod Dom ar model. The main obstacle in the way of growth in the Harrod-Domar model is the phenomenon of aid filtering out into increased consumption (1-s). fa. Aid has to be spent on investment or has to increase the saving rate (both eventually come out to be the same) for a country to grow.To see a practical example of this, we consider Pakistan, which is a country largely dependent on foreign aid. During the period 1952-2002, the total amount of aid given to Pakistan equaled 63703 million US dollars. Ghulam Mohey-ud-din examines in his paper Impact of foreign aid on economic development in Pakistan, the reasons for aid not resulting in the required growth for Pakistan. He states three main reasons for the failure of aid to account for growth. First of all, a staggering 58% of this total aid (approx. 6945 million US dollars) was tied to development of large projects while only 13% (approx 8281 million US dollars) accounted for non-food and BOP aid. Such a large portion of aid (58%) going towards consumption invariably meant that the effect on savings was going to be very minute. Thus, financial aid tended to crowd out saving and investment. Secondly, while the nominal aid gradually increased, in reality, aid as a percentage of gross national income fell from approximately 7. 6% in 1960 to nearly 3% in 2002. This meant that aid was not catching up to the required increase in the GNI of Pakistan.Thirdly, along with the increase in aid came the burden of burgeoning foreign debt. This required huge amounts of debt servicing which reduced Pakistans current account. As previously explained, aid was already not resulting in much growth due to it crowding out savings and investment. An additional burden of debt servicing did the government no better. Accordingly, its GDP growth rate was subject to constant fluctuations and Pakistan could never attain sustainable growth. The growth rate reached a peak of 10. 22% in 1953 but since then, the average growth has gone down with t he exception of one or two years.In 2002, the GDP growth rate stood at 4. 73%. Aid during a whole half of a century could not result in sustained economic growth. Another approach that looks at the impact of foreign aid on growth is the poverty trap. Many poor developing countries face an inability to grow at reasonable rates due to getting stuck in a poverty trap, which can be defined as a self-reinforcing mechanism which causes poverty to persist. We use the Solow model to analyze how aid can be used to pull countries out of this poverty trap and onto the path of self-sustaining economic growth.We assume the basic assumptions of Solow model to be true. Thus, we assume constant returns to scale production function and diminishing returns to capital. The final and important relation of the Solow model is ? k=s. y-(n+? ). k (5) k is capital per worker n is population growth Philipp Harms and Matthiaz Lutz depart from this conventional Solow model by assuming that people have to satis fy their basic consumption needs for which savings are zero until per capita income does not exceed a certain level. The modified Solow diagram is shown belowTwo steady states are shown in the above figure. k* is an unstable steady state while k** is a stable steady state. If the countrys initial capital per worker is below the unstable steady state k*, then the country is stuck in a potentially dangerous poverty trap. Low income levels result in low saving which leads to lower investment in capital stock. Increasing depreciation ? of capital will further lower the capital per worker k and result in even lower income. This vicious cycle of poverty and lack of growth will keep re-enforcing each other unless the country is given a push start.This push can be in the form of aid, which may impact the savings rate s as discussed in the extended Harrod Domar model. Furthermore, aid in the form of foreign capital inflow can also increase capital per worker, consequently pushing the country out the poverty trap. Now we come to the analysis of growth patterns in two Arab countries namely Egypt and Palestine. We will explore the amounts and type of aid given to these countries and then investigate their underlying effects on various growth variables based on the Solow and Harrod Domar models discussed earlier in the paper.With this in mind, we turn to the empirical evidences which show that 1. ODA/GNI ratio for Palestine has increased during the period 2000-2005, while that of Egypt has decreased during the same period. 2. ODA/Capita for Palestine has increased to $500 during the period 2000-2005, while ODA/Capita for Egypt has come down to $15 in 2003 from $179 in 1979. 3. In Egypt, 13% of the total aid was tied whereas in Palestine 8% was tied. 4. Technical aid provided to Egypt was 44% while that of Palestine was 16% of total aid during the period 2000-2004. 5.In Egypt, education was given the highest priority among the aid allocated to the social sector. While in Pa lestine, Education was the second lowest recipient of aid allocated to the social sector. 6. In Palestine, growth rate of real GDP from 2003-2005 was 35. 50%, while the percentage change in real GDP for Egypt was 127. 46 for the same period. ODA/GNI ratio signifies the dependency of the recipient country on the donor for foreign aid. A large increase in the ODA/GNI ratio of Palestine meant that it was becoming more and more dependent on foreign aid for support, while the opposite was true for Egypt.Consequently, Palestinian institutions kept weakening and were not given the incentive to develop due to their heavy reliance on outward help. On the other hand, Egypts lower dependency on foreign aid meant that it was getting increased opportunities to develop its institutions and stand up on its own feet. As the ODA/capita of Palestine increased to alarming heights, it signaled the reliance of Palestine on foreign donations. This could have created a moral hazard problem for the rulers of Palestine who knew that growth would result in drawing back of aid.In such a scenario, the incentive to grow could have actually vanished. Conditional or tied aid has great disadvantages because the recipient government cannot spend the aid on their desired projects. Moreover, tied aid has to be spent on specific and predetermines projects. As discussed earlier in the paper, if foreign aid is diverted to such consumption, it has the tendency to crowd out investment and savings. Although Egypt had a greater share of tied aid than Palestine, however the small size and weak economy of Palestine meant that even 8% of tied aid had a profound effect on its growth.Egypt was provided more technical aid than Palestine. Technical aid in turns translates into higher Theta in the extended Solow model. An important relation of this model is ?ke= s. ye-(n+? +theta) k Therefore higher technical aid for Egypt resulted in higher effective capital per labor and in turn higher growth than Palestine . The allocation of higher portion of aid to education by Egypt as compared to Palestine means that Egypt is contributing more to its human capital. This will in turn again stimulate theta in the extended Solow model, resulting in increase growth rate of Egypt.In the light of above discussion, it can be said that the effect of aid on growth does not only depend on variables explained in the models above. Many other factors play a vital role in this link as well. As seen in the case of Zambia, the macroeconomic and political stability are pre-requisites which feed into this complex relation as well. The aid distribution plan should be effective and free of corruption of all sorts for it to have an impact on growth. A major chunk of aid should be distributed towards the saving and investment channel.While our analysis has tried to determine a link between aid and development, it still carries some shortcomings. The assumptions used in the models such as a fixed capital output ratio ar e too stringent and do not carry much weight in the reality. Some variables such as savings rate s and productivity theta are determined exogenously, while the macro/microeconomic conditions determining these variables could also affect the impact of aid on growth. Nonetheless, the analysis provides useful insight into the complex relation of aid and growth.

Origins and Significance

Among the elements of field of battle, the costume is perhaps the actors to the highest degree intimate physical tool during his performance. It completes the actors character, depicting his age, sexual urge part, profession, social class, personality, from which he could draw more depth into his performance. And without the actor or narrator verbalizing it, the costume gives information as to the period/era, geographic location, chasten or weather, and time of day of the performance, thus making the costume an underlying part of an entire production.In addition, the costume helps establish relationships between characters (mother and daughter, or handmaid and master, for example) and illustrate a characters emotional state, as in Chekovs The Seagull where Masha wears black to reflect her melancholy (Baranger, 2006). Scenography, a house design website, expounds on costumes in theatre as the final fretsaw in a complex character, further detailing that it is the personal wa y of a character and within the world of a story it fuel similarly be use to create the collage that becomes theatrical design.The role of costume takes on greater meanings depending on the performance but also becomes part of the theatrical picture. The idea of using costumes in theatre sack be traced from the ancient Greek times, with only the actor, manager, director, or ward nightdress person was responsible for clothing worn on stage giving critical attention to the unity of visual elements (Baranger, 2006). The use of costumes did not originate in just one place, however. In the different parts of the world where theatre is a significant part of the culture, costumes were employ to identify the good from the evil, the kind from the spirit or animal.Often, masks completed the costumes. In Ancient Greek drama, the actors wore large-scale masks with exaggerated expressions. These masks fell into two general categories tragic and comic. In Rome, masks were use in comedy an d pantomime. During Renaissance, the commedia dellarte made extravagant use of fractional masks covering the eyes and nose were used (Encarta, 2006). In old Asia, where the handed-down pageants employed shiny and colorful costumes to portray the royalty, masks were required to represent the kings, princesses and grievous characters.Japan has various and unique types of costumes, sometimes depending on the kind of theatre. In the No theatre, the costumes were intricate, formal and imaginative, usually bold in color and design, and made for a certain actor, and each had specific rules to follow. Kabuki costumes, on the other hand used big wigs and many different types of mask styles to match the character (Thinkquest, 2006). In Japanese theatre, color was used a lot to depict the emotions of a character red for passion and super human power, blue for green-eyed monster and fearfulness (Thinkquest, 2006), and so on.In Peking Opera, the actors wear long cuffs called water sleeves wh ich they word picture about to express emotions warriors are identified by their heavily embroidered satin coats (Fisher, 2007). In India, several types of dance-dramas exist, the most popular of which is the kathakali, of which plots come from the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The performers wear brightly nonreversible makeup in symbolic patterns and beards made of paper, and costumes comprised of layered wide skirts and disk-shaped headdresses (Fisher, 2007).Ancient roman actors, on the other hand, developed a kind of code that would give out the audience about the character just by looking at them a black wig meant the character was a young man, antique meant he was an old man, red wig meant the character was slave a colour robe meant the character was an old man, a purple robe meant he was a young man. Color, in the late theatre, is also used to illustrate moods black bureau depressing or evil white is purity, red is passion or anger, blue is cool and tranquil , magenta means royalty, green is peace and hope (Richardson, 1996).The role of costume in the modern theatre has not changed so much in the overall feign of a production. References Barranger, M. S. (2006). Theater. Microsoft Encarta 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA Microsoft Corporation. Mask. (2006). Microsoft Encarta 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA Microsoft Corporation. Richardson, S. (1996). WPI Technical Theatre Handbook. Retrieved November 9, 2008, from http//www. gweep. net/prefect/pubs/iqp/technical_theatre_handbook. pdf. Scenography. trick out Design. Retrieved November 9, 2008, from http//www. sceno. org/articles/costume-design/ Sorgenfrei, C. F. (2006). Asian Theater.Microsoft Encarta 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA Microsoft Corporation. Theatrical Costume. (2006). Microsoft Encarta 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA Microsoft Corporation. Thinkquest. (2006). Japanese Theatre Costumes. Retrieved November 8, from http//library. thinkquest. org/05aug/00717/pages/costumes. hypertext mark-up language Wikipedia. C ostumes. Retrieved November 9, 2008, from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Costumes. Wikipedia. Costume Design. Retrieved November 9, 2008, from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Costume_designer Wikipedia. History of Theatre. Retrieved November 9, 2008, from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/History_of_theatre