Ap World Unit 4 Review

PART II, UNIT IV1750-1914 The date of reference betwixt 1750 and 1914 C. E. was wiz of clear europiumanhegemony. In the introductory earned run average (1450 to 1750 C. E. ), europiumans hadtilted the residual of do chiefly concern business leader outside from Asia, where powerful surface-behavedizations had existed since ancient snips. How constantly, patronage move arounding European enchant base on sea passel and resolution, majorland-based empires in Asia noneffervescent influenced long distance take andshaped policy-making and frugal conditions around them. In this era,Europe non unaccompanied dominated the western well-nighbound unify Statesern hemisphere, as it had in thelast, hardly it came to control the eastern hemisphere as hale. How didthey do it? resolve of the answer lies in a draw of discoeries andhappenings that in concert constitute an funda mental Marker Event theindustrial transformation. some(a) new(prenominal)(prenominal) go under of philosophical and semipolitical correctts were equ e genuinelyy important the bring inment of democracy as amajor element of a untried type of political organization the population. QUESTIONS OF PERIODIZATION very(prenominal) important characteristics that distinguish 1750-1914 from dis utilise eras in human annals include European dominance of long-distance bargain Whether by unequal treaties or colonization, sea-based craftiness gave European countries control of exclusively major trade circuits in the world. get and ca-ca non countries created by industrialization The Industrial re virginal gave big economical and political advantages to countries where it occurs everywhere countries that anticipateed primarily agricultural. Inequalities among regions increase c entirelyable to imperialism mixture countries set out to form overseas empires, sometimes through colonization and other times by economic and/or political subordination. esta blishmental revolutions excite by democracy and desire for liberty These revolutions continue to the pre direct, more(prenominal)over ru guide revolutions that fix up new egalitarian forms of establishment in countersink occurred during this era.The nation emerged as a new type of political organization. We exit analyze these important characteristics of the close byexamining these topics Changes in global commerce, communications, and technology Patterns of world trade and tinct changed as the Industrial Revolution revolutionized communications and commerce. Distances became shorter as the Suez and Panama Canals tighten new channels for travel, and new technology meant that ships were windy than in the lead. Railroads revived land travel. Demographic and milieual changes Huge numbers of plenty migrated to the the Statess from Europe and Asia, so that population in the western hemisphere grew dramatic all toldy. The striver trade stop, and so did hurtled migra tions from Africa to the New World. Industrialization had a extensive stupor on the environment, as prays for new fuels came about and cities dominated the grace in industrialized countries. Industrialization alike increase the demand for sensitive materials from less industrialized countries, altering natural landscapes further. Changes in neighborly and sexual urge structures Serf and buckle down schemas became less special K, tho the crack cocaine between the fat and poor grew in industrialized countries. We will explore the controversy regarding changes in womens berths in response to industrial enterprise. Did womens status improve, or did sexual activity inequality grow? policy-ma pansy revolutions and independence executions new political ideas Absolutism was challenged in some(prenominal) an(prenominal) break downs of the globe, and democracy took root as a dissolvent of economic and cordial change and foresight philosophies that began in the 17th atomic number 6. Nations arose as political entities that inspired nationalism and deeds of political reform. Rise of western dominance The commentary of west expanded to include the join States and Australia, and western dominance reached non scarce economic and political atomic number 18as, but extended to social, cultural, and artistic realms as well. Although coercive job systems as such(prenominal) declined during this era,new fountainheads of equality and neverthelessice emerged as west came todominate east, and the gap between the bounteous and poor grew larger, featurely in the about prosperous countries. CHANGES IN GLOBAL COMMERCE, COMMUNICATIONS, ANDTECHNOLOGYBy 1750 international trade and communications were zero point new. During the 1450-1750 era Europeans had set up colonies in thethe Statess so that for the foremost time in world story the western andeastern hemispheres were in constant contact with i another. However, afterwards 1750 the pace of trade picked up dramatically, fed bya series of economic and technological transformations collectivelyknown as the Industrial Revolution. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION take to be that to be called a Marker Event in world history, adevelopment should alter in iii slipway It must cross national or cultural b come ins, affecting more civilizations. Later changes or developments in history must be at least fall apartially traced to this event or series of events. It must have impact in other areas. For example, if it is a technological change, it must impact some other major areas, bid government, belief systems, social variancees, or the sparing. Like the Neolithic Revolution that occurred 10,000 long time beforeit, the Industrial Revolution qualifies as a Marker Event accordingto all of the above criteria. It brought about such sweeping changesthat it approximately transformed the world, even areas in whichindustrialization did not occur.The concept canvassms simple &endash invent and perfect machinery to alleviate make for kind-hearted labor more efficient- but thats part of its immenseness. The change was so basic that itcould not help but affect all areas of mountains lives in every partof the globe. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the new-fashi iodined 18thcentury, and break during the nineteenth century to Belgium, Germ any,Northern France, the United States, and Japan. Al around all areas ofthe world felt the effects of the Industrial Revolution beca consumption itdivided the world into have and have not countries, with many another(prenominal) ofthe latter be controlled by the originator.Englands lead in theIndustrial Revolution trans new-fangledd into economic prowess and politicalpower that allowed colonization of other lands, eventually expression aworldwide British Empire. WHY BRITAIN? The Industrial Revolution helped England greatly increase itsoutput of construct goods by substituting hand labor with machinelabor. Economic growth in Britain was fueled by a number offactors An Agricultural Revolution The Industrial Revolution would not have been possible without a series of avails in agriculture in England.Beginning in the proterozoic1700s, wealthy landowners began to enlarge their off the beaten track(predicate)ms through frontier, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new techniques of farming. These scientific farmers improved crop rotation methods, which economic aidfully controlled nutrients in the soil. They bred better livestock, and invented new machines, such as Jethro Tulls seed drill that more effectively pose seeds. The larger the farms and the better the production the fewer farmers were needed. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either became tenant farmers or they moved to cities.Better nutrition boosted Englands population, creating the foremost needed component for the Industrial Revolution labor. A technological revolution Eng land likewise was the offset printing to experience a technological revolution, a series of crafts build on the principles of mass production, mechanization, and interchangeable parts. Josiah Wedgwood developed a mold for clayware that replaced the potters wheel, making mass production of dishes possible. Many experimented with machinery to speed up human labor, and interchangeable parts meant that machines were more practical and easier to repair. Natural resources Britain had large and affable supplies of coal and iron two of the most important raw materials utilize to produce the goods for the azoic Industrial Revolution. Also available was torso of water power to fuel the new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation. Economic strength During the previous era, Britain had al testifyy create many of the economic practices and structures necessary for economic expansion, as well as a affectionateness severalise (the middle cl ass) that had experience with duty and manufacturing goods.Banks were well established, and they provided loans for businessmen to invest in new machinery and expand their trading operations. Political stability Britains political development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal upheavals occurring. Although Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none of them took place on British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question the governments authority. By 1750 Parliaments power far exceeded that of the king, and its members passed laws that protected business and helped expansion. current INVENTIONS The earliest transformation of the Industrial Revolution wasBritains cloth persistence. In 1750 Britain already exported wool,linen, and cotton cloth, and the pay of cloth merchants wereboosted by focal ratio up the treat by which spinners and weavers madecloth. One invention led to another since none were useful if anypart of the solve was s cast down than the others. Some key inventionswere The short shuttle John Kays invention carried threads of yarn back and forrard when the weaver pulled a handle, greatly ncreasing the weavers productivity. The rotate jenny crowd Hargreaves invention allowed one spinner to hunt down eight threads at a time, increasing the output of spinners, allowing them to keep up with the weavers. Hargreaves named the machine for his daughter. The water form Richard Arkwrights invention replaced the hand-driven spinning jenny with one powered by water power, increasing spinning productivity even more. The spinning mule In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce the spinning mule.It made thread that was stronger, finer, and more consistent than that made by originally machines. He followed this invention with the power loom that sped up the weaving process to match the new spinners. These machines were bulky and expensive, so s pinning and weavingcould no time-consuming be do at billet. Wealthy fabric merchants set up themachines in factories, and had the instituteers come to these places to dotheir work. At first the factories were set up go about rivers andstreams for water power, but other inventions later made thisunnecessary. originally the late 1700s Britains demand for cotton wasmet by India, but they increasingly came to depend on the the Statesnsouth, where grove production was speeded by Eli Whitneysinvention of the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently unconnected thecotton fiber from the seed. By 1810 southern plantations apply slavelabor to produce 85 jillion pounds of cotton, up from 1. 5 million in1790. TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEwork forceTS Once the textile industry began its exponential growth,transportation of raw materials to factories and manufactured goodsto customers had to be worked out.New inventions in transportationspurred the Industrial Revolution further. A key invention was thesteam engine that was perfected by James tungsten in the late 1790s. Although steam power had been used before, Watt invented ways to makeit practical and efficient to use for some(prenominal) water and landtransportation. mayhap the most revolutionary use of steam energy was therailroad engine, which drove face industry after 1820. The firstlong-distance rail line from the coastal city of Liverpool to inlandManchester was an contiguous success upon its completion in 1830, and indoors a few decades, most British cities were connected by rail.Railroads revolutionized life in Britain in several ways 1) Railroads gave manufacturers a cheap way to transport materialsand finished products. 2) The railroad hell dust created hundreds of thousands of new jobs forboth railroad workers and miners. 3) The railroad industry spawned new industries and inventions andincreased the productivity of others. For example, agriculturalproducts could be transported farther without spoiling, so farmersbenefited from the railroads. 4) Railroads transported lot, allowing them to work in citiesfar away from their homes and travel to repair areas for leisure.THE SPREAD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution occurred only in Britain for about 50years, but it eventually spread to other countries in Europe, theUnited States, Russia, and Japan. British entrepreneurs andgovernment officials for deadlye the export of machinery, manufacturingtechniques, and skilled workers to other countries but thetechnologies spread by luring British experts with lucrative offers,and even smuggling secrets into other countries. By the mid-nineteenthcentury industrialization had spread to France, Germany, Belgium, andthe United States.The earliest center of industrial production in Continental Europewas Belgium, where coal, iron, textile, glass, and armamentsproduction flourished. By 1830 cut firms had employed many skilledBritish workers to help establish the textile industry, and railroadlines began to appear across western Europe. Germany was a miniaturelater in developing industry, primary(prenominal)ly because no centralizedgovernment existed there yet, and a great deal of political unrestmade industrialization difficult. However, after the 1840s Germancoal and iron production skyrocketed, and by the 1850s an extensiverail network was under construction.After German politicalunification in 1871, the new empire rivaled England in terms o take inustrial production. Industrialization began in the United States by the 1820s, delayuntil the country had enough laborers and money to invest inbusiness. two came from Europe, where overpopulation and politicalrevolutions sent immigrants to the United States to seek theirfortunes. The American Civil War (1861-1865) delayed furtherimmigration until the 1870s, but it spurred the need for industrialwar products, all the way from soldiers uniforms to guns torailroads for troop transport.Once the war was over, cr oss-countryrailroads were built which allowed more mountain to claim parts of vastinland America and to reach the west coast. The United States hadabundant natural resources &endash land, water, coal and iron ore&endash and after the great rove of immigration from Europe and Asiain the late 19th century &endash it also had the labor. During the late 1800s, industrialization spread to Russia andJapan, in both cases by government initiatives. In Russia the tsaristgovernment encouraged the construction of railroads to link places within the vast reaches of the empire.The most impressive one wasthe Trans-Siberian line constructed between 1891 and 1904, linkingMoscow to Vladivostock on the Pacific Ocean. The railroads also gaveRussians access to the empires many coal and iron deposits, and by1900 Russia ranked fourth in the world in steel production. TheJapanese government also pushed industrialization, hiring thousandsof foreign experts to instruct Japanese workers and mangers in thel ate 1800s. Railroads were constructed, mines were opened, a bankingsystem was organized, and industries were started that producedships, armaments, silk, cotton, chemicals, and glass.By 1900 Japanwas the most industrialized land in Asia, and was set to construct atwentieth century power. CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF WORLD manage Industrialization greatly increased the economic, armed services, andpolitical strength of the societies that embraced it. By and large,the countries that benefited from industrialization were the onesthat had the necessary components of land, labor and capital, and a good deal government encourage. However, even though many other countriestried to industrialize, few had much(prenominal) success.For example, Indiatried to develop jute and steel industries, but the entrepreneursfailed because they had no government support and fine investmentcapital. An international di ken of labor resulted muckle inindustrialized countries produced manufactured products, and mountainin less industrialized countries produced the raw materials necessaryfor that production. Industrial England, for example, needed cotton,so dour to India, Egypt, and the American south to produce it forthem. In many cases this di day- aspiration of labor led to colonization of whereforeon-industrialized areas.As industrialization increased, more ironand coal were needed, as well as other fibers for the textileindustry, and the British Empire grew rapidly in order to meet thesedemands. Many countries in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia,and atomic number 34 Asia became highly dependent on one cash crop such assugar, cotton, and rubber giving them the nickname of BananaRepublics. Such economies were very vulnerable to any change in theinternational food market. Foreign investors owned and controlled theplantations that produced these crops, and most of the profits wentto them.Very little of the profits actually improved the livingconditions for people that lived in those areas, and since they hadlittle money to spend, a market economy could not develop. Despite the inequalities, the division of labor between people incountries that produced raw materials and those that producedmanufactured goods increased the total volume of world trade. Inturn, this increased volume led to better technology, whichreinforced and fed the trade. Sea travel became much more efficient,with journeys that had once taken months or years reduced to long time orweeks.By 1914 two great canals shortened sea journeys by thousandsof miles. The Suez Canal built by the British and french in the 1850slinked the Mediterranean Sea to the cherry Sea, making it no longernecessary to go around the tip of Africa to get from Europe to Asiaby sea. The Panama Canal, completed in 1913, did a similar thing inthe western hemisphere, cutting a swath through Central America thatencouraged trade and transportation between the Atlantic and PacificOceans. demographic AND ENVIRONM ENTALCHANGES The Industrial Revolution importantly changed populationpatterns, migrations, and environments.In industrialized nationspeople moved to the areas around factories to work there, citiesgrew, and as a result an overall migration from artless to urban areastook place. This movement was facilitated by the growth of railroadsand improvement of other forms of transportation. This era also seemigrations on a large descale from Europe and Asia into the Americas,so that the overall population of the western hemisphere increased. However, this movement did not translate into a decrease ofpopulation in the eastern hemisphere.Particularly in Europe, theAgricultural Revolution improved nutrition, especially as the potato(transported from the New World in the previous era) became a maindiet staple for European peasants. THE difference OF THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE ANDSLAVERY Even as we may roll whether slavery and the slave trade cameabout because of racial discrimination or econ omic benefit, we may argue about whyboth ended during this era. From the beginning, as the Atlantic slavetrade enriched some Africans and many Europeans, it became a topic offierce debate in Europe, Africa, and the Americas in the late 18thcentury.The American and French revolutions stimulated thesediscussions, since both emphasizingd liberty, equality, and justice,topics that fed a strong abolitionist movement. Because most slaveswere not allowed to learn to read and write, most outspokenabolitionists were free whites in England and North America. However,Africans themselves took up the struggle to abolish slavery and theslave trade, rising in frequent slave lawlessnesss in the 18th and 19thcenturies that made slavery an expensive and dangerous business.Probably the most famous African spokespersons was Olaudah Equiano, awest African who published an autobiography in 1789 that recountedhis experiences as a slave in Africa and the New World. He latergained his freedom, learned to r ead and write, and became active inthe abolitionist movement. Many people read his works, heard himspeak, and were influenced to support slavery. Despite the importance of the abolitionist movement, economicforces also contributed to the end of slavery and the slave trade. Plantations and the slave labor that supported them remained in placeas long as they were profitable.In the Caribbean, a revolution, ledby Toussaint LOuverture resulted in the liberation of slaves inHaiti and the human beings of the first black free assure in the Americas. However, the revolution was so violent that it sparked fear amongplantation owners and colonial governments throughout the Caribbean. In the late 18th century, a rapid increase in Caribbean sugarproduction led to declining prices, and yet prices for slavesremained high and even increased. Even as plantations experiences these difficulties, profits fromthe emerging manufacturing industries were increasing, so investorsshifted their money to th ese new endeavors.Investors discovered thatwage labor in factories was cheaper than slave labor on plantationsbecause the owners were not responsible for food and shelter. Entrepreneurs began to see Africa as a place to get raw materials forindustry, not just slaves. THE END OF THE SLAVE TRADE Most European countries and the United States had abolished theslave trade before the mid-19th century Britain in 1807, the UnitedStates in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in1845. importunate abolitionists in Britain pressured the government tosend patrol ships to the est coast of Africa to conduct search andseizure operations for ships that violated the ban. The lastdocumented ship that carried slaves on the mettle Passage arrived inCuba in 1867. THE END OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery continued in most places in theAmericas long after the slave trade was abolished, with the Britishabolishing slavery in their colonies in 1833. The French abolishedslavery in 18 48, the same year that their last king was turnn bya democratic government.The United States abolished slavery in 1865when the mating won a bitterly Civil War that had divided the southernslave-holding states from the northern non-slavery states. The lastcountry to abolish slavery in the Americas was Brazil, where theinstitution was weakened by a law that allowed slaves to fight in the troops in exchange for freedom. Army leaders resisted demands that theycapture and return runaway slaves, and slavery was abolished in 1888,without a war. IMMIGRATION TO THE AMERICAS Various immigration patterns arose to replace the slave trade.Asian and European immigrants came to seek opportunities in theAmericas from Canada in the north to Argentina in the south. Somewere attracted to discoveries of favourable and silver in western NorthAmerica and Canada, including many who made their way west from theeastern United States. However, European and Asian migrants whobecame workers in factories, r ailroad construction sites, andplantations outnumbered those who were florid prospectors. By the mid 19th century European migrants began crossing theAtlantic to engorge the factories in the eastern United States.Increasing rents and indebtedness drove farmers from Ireland,Scotland, Germany and Scandinavia to North America, subsidence in theOhio and Mississippi River Valleys in search of land. The potatofamine forced many Irish peasants to make the journey, and politicalrevolutions caused many Germans to flee the wrath of the governmentwhen their causes failed. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries,most immigrants to North America were from southern and easternEurope, fleeing famine, poverty, and discrimination in theircountries of origin.While migrants to the United States came to fill jobs in thedeveloping industrial society, those who went to Latin America mostlyworked on agricultural plantations. About 4 million Italians came toArgentina in the 1880s and 1890s, and others went to Brazil, wherethe government paid the voyage over for Italian migrants who came towork on coffee plantations after slavery was abolished. Others camefrom Asia, with more than 15,000 indentured laborers from Chinaworking in sugarcane fields in Cuba during the 19th century. Chineseand Japanese laborers came to Peru where they worked on cottonplantations, in mines, and on railroad lines.THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION This era saw a basic change in the population structures ofindustrialized countries. Large families had always been welcome inagricultural societies because the more people a family had, the moreland they were able to work. Childrens work was in the main worth morethan it costs to take care of them. However, in the west, includingthe United States, the birth rate declined to historically low levelsin the 19th century. This demographic transition from high birthrates to low reflected the facts that child labor was being replacedby machines and that children were not as useful as they were inagricultural societies.Instead, as life styles changed in urbansettings, it became difficult to support large families, both interms of supporting them with salaries from industrial jobs and inhousing them in crowded conditions in the cities. High birth ratescontinued elsewhere in the world, so the wests percentage of totalworld population began to slip by 1900 even as its world powerpeaked. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES Wilderness areas in Europe were virtually gone by 1750, withalmost every piece of land used by farmers or townspeople. However,the process continued during this era, and deforestation became themost serious problem.Americans transformed their lands even morerapidly as people moved west, clearing forests for farms and thenmoving on when the soil was depleted. The cultivation of cotton wasespecially harmful. Planters cut down forests, grew cotton for a fewyears, moved west, and aban through with(p)d the land to crotch hair pines. Surprisingly, industri alization actually relieved environmentaldepletion in Britain because raw materials once full-grown on British soil&endash like wool and grain were replaced by coal and iron raiseunderground. Iron replaced wood in many build structures,including ships, so that deforestation slowed.The most dramatic environmental changes in industrializedcountries occurred in the towns. Never before had towns grown sofast, and major cities formed. London grew from about 500,000inhabitants in 1700 to more than 2 million by 1850, with the largestpopulation a city had ever had in world history. Cities in the nitty-grittyindustrial belt of Britain, such as Liverpool and Manchester grewrapidly during this period as well. New York City in the UnitedStates reached about 600,000 in 1850. CHANGES IN SOCIAL AND GENDERSTRUCTUREIndustrialization also transformed social and sexual practice structures incountries where it developed, although it is not entirely clear as towhether the sexuality gap narrowed o r widened. By and largeindustrialization widened the gap between the rich and the poor bycreating opportunities for businessmen to be far richer than theupper physiquees in an agricultural society ever could be. Although theywere free, not forced, laborers, the wages for mill workers werevery low, and many suffered as much if not more poverty than they hadas rural peasants. WORKING CONDITIONSIndustrialization offered new opportunities to people withimportant skills, such as carpentry, metallurgy, and machineoperations. Some industrious people became engineers or opened theirown businesses, but for the vast majority of those who go forth theirfarming roots to find their fortunes in the cities, life was full ofdisappointments. Most industrial jobs were boring, repetitive, andpoorly paid. Work long time were long with few breaks, and workersperformed one simple task over and over with little sense ofaccomplishment. Unlike even the poorest farmer or craftsman, factoryworkers had no control over tools, jobs, or working hours.Factoryworkers could do very little about their predicament until the latterpart of the period, when labor unions formed and helped to provokethe moral conscience of some middle enlighten people. Until then, workerswho dared to go on strike &endash like the unwedded girls at theLowell mills in Massachusetts &endash they were simply replaced byother workers from the abundant contribute of labor. FAMILY LIFE Because machinery had to be placed in a large, centrally locatedplace, workers had to go to factories to perform their work, a majorchange in lifestyles from those of agricultural societies.Inprevious days all family members did most of their work on the farm,which meant that the family stayed together most of the time. Division of labor meant that they did contrastive types of work, mostlysplit by gender and age, but the endeavor was a collective one. Evenin the early days of commercialization, piece work was generallydone by people at home, and then delivered to the merchant orbusinessman. Now, people left their homes for hours at a time, oftenleaving very early and not returning till very late. Usually bothhusband and wife worked away from home, and for most of this period,so did children.Family life was never the same again. In the early days of industrialization, the main occupation ofworking women was domestic servitude. If they had small children,they usually tried to find work they could do at home, such aslaundry, sewing, or taking in lodgers. However, even with bothparents working, wages were so low that most families found itdifficult to make ends meet. Most industrialists encouraged workersto bring their children along with them to the factories becausechildren usually could do the work, too, and they were quitecheap. CHANGES IN SOCIAL variantESA major social change brought about by the Industrial Revolutionwas the development of a relatively large middle kin, orbourgeoisie in industrialized count ries. This class had been increment in Europe since medieval days when wealth was based on land,and most people were peasants. With the advent of industrialization,wealth was increasingly based on money and success in businessenterprises, although the status of transmitted titles of nobilitybased on land ownership remained in place. However, land had neverproduced such riches as did business enterprises of this era, and somembers of the bourgeoisie were the wealthiest people around.However, most members of the middle class were not wealthy, owningsmall businesses or serving as managers or administrators in largebusinesses. They generally had comfortable lifestyles, and many wereconcerned with respectability, or the demonstration that they were ofa higher social class than factory workers were. They valued the hardwork, ambition, and individual responsibility that had led to theirown success, and many believed that the lower classes only hadthemselves to blame for their failures. T his attitude generallyextended not to just the urban poor, but to people who still farmedin rural areas.The urban poor were often at the mercy of business cycles &endashswings between economic hard times to recuperation and growth. Factoryworkers were laid off from their jobs during hard times, making theirlives even more difficult. With this recurrent unemployment camepublic behaviors, such as drunkenness and fighting, that appalled themiddle class, who stressed sobriety, thrift, industriousness, andresponsibility. companionable class distinctions were reinforced by Social Darwinism, a ism by Englishman Herbert Spencer.He argued that humansociety operates by a system of natural selection, wherebyindividuals and ways of life automatically gravitate to their properstation. According to Social Darwinists, poverty was a naturalcondition for deficient individuals. GENDER ROLES AND INEQUALITY Changes in gender roles generally fell along class lines, withrelationships between men and women of the middle class being verydifferent from those in the lower classes. LOWER CLASS MEN AND WOMEN Factory workers often resisted the work discipline and pressuresimposed by their middle class bosses.They worked long hours inunful pickaxe jobs, but their leisure time interests fed thepopularity of two sports European soccer and American baseball. Theyalso did less respectable things, like socializing at bars and pubs,staging dog or chicken fights, and participating in other activitiesthat middle class men disdained. Meanwhile, most of their wives were working, most commonly asdomestic servants for middle class households, jobs that they usuallypreferred to factory work. Young women in rural areas often came tocities or suburban areas to work as house servants.They often sentsome of their wages home to support their families in the country,and some saved dowry money. Others saved to support ambitions tobecome clerks or secretaries, jobs increasingly filled by women, butsupervis ed by men. MIDDLE CLASS MEN AND WOMEN When production moved outside the home, men who became owners ormanagers of factories gained status. Industrial work kept the economymoving, and it was valued more than the domestic chores traditionallycarried out by women. mens wages supported the families, since theyusually were the ones who made their comfortable life stylespossible.The work value orientation of the middle class infiltrated leisure timeas well. Many were intent on self-improvement, study books orattending lectures on business or culture. Many factory owners andmanagers stressed the importance of church attendance for all, hopingthat factory workers could be persuaded to adopt middle-class valuesof respectability. Middle class women generally did not work outside of the home,partly because men came to see stay-at-home wives as a symbol oftheir success. What followed was a cult of domesticity thatjustified removing women from the work place.Instead, they filledtheir lives wi th the care of children and the operation of theirhomes. Since most middle-class women had servants, they spent timesupervising them, but they also had to do fewer household choresthemselves. Historians disagree in their answers to the question of whether ornot gender inequality grew because of industrialization. Gender roleswere generally fixed in agricultural societies, and if the lives ofworking class people in industrial societies are examined, it isdifficult to see that any solid changes in the gender gap tookplace at all.However, middle class gender roles provide the realbasis for the argument. On the one hand, some argue that women wereforced out of many areas of meaningful work, isolated in their homesto obsess about issues of marginal importance. On the farm, theirwork was womens work, but they were an integral part of thecentral enterprise of their time agriculture. Their work in raisingchildren was vital to the economy, but industrialization renderedchildren superfluous as well, whose only role was to grow up safelyenough to fill their adult gender-related duties.On the other hand,the cult of domesticity include a sort of idolizing of women thatmade them responsible for moral values and standards. Women were seenas stable and pure, the vision of what kept their men de voted to thetasks of running the economy. Women as standard-setters, then, becamethe important force in shaping children to value respectability, leadmoral lives, and be responsible for their own behaviors. Withoutwomen filling this important role, the entire social structure thatsupported industrialized power would collapse. And who could deal formore power than that?NEW POLITICAL IDEAS ANDMOVEMENTS In 1750 only England and the Netherlands had completemonarchies, governments that limited the powers of the king or ruler. All the other kingdoms of Europe, as well as the Islamic Empires andChina, practiced absolutism. Absolutist rulers benefited from thetendency for governments to ce ntralize between 1450 and 1750 becauseit extended the power they had over their subjects. Most of therulers reinforced their powers by claiming special authority for thesupernatural, whether it be the dominance of heaven as practiced inChina, or divine right as European kings declared.Between 1750 and1914, absolute rulers almost everywhere lost power, and the rule oflaw became a much more important political principle. One of the most important political concepts to arise from the erawas the nation-state, a union often characterized by a commonlanguage, shared historical experiences and institutions, and similarcultural traditions, including religion at both the elite and popularlevels. As a result, political loyalties were no longer so determinedby ones attitudes toward a particular king or noble but by a moreabstract shackle to a nation. FORCES FOR POLITICAL CHANGE As the Industrial Revolution began in England, the economicchanges were accompanied by demands for political change s that spreadto many other areas of the world by the end of the 19th century. Twoimportant forces behind the change were The influence of the Enlightenment The 1700s are sometimes referred to as the Age of Enlightenment, because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of absolute governments.The Enlightenment began in Europe, and was a part of the changes associated with the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Protestant recoveration, all taking place between 1450 and 1750. The Enlightenment invited people to use their reason using the same humanistic approach of Renaissance times. hoi polloi can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies. In the 1600s John Locke wrote that a rulers authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social contract that gave subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled badly.French philosophes, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousse au spread the new ideas to France, where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism. New wealth of the bourgeoisie Ongoing commercialization of the economy meant that the middle class grew in size and wealth, but not necessarily in political power. These self-made men questioned the idea that aristocrats alone should hold the highest political offices. Most could read and write, and found Enlightenment doctrine appealing in its questioning of absolute power. They seek political power to match the economic power that they had gained.REVOLUTIONS A crew of economic, intellectual, and social changesstarted a wave of revolutions in the late 1700s that continued intothe first half of the 19th century. The started in North America andFrance, and spread into other parts of Europe and to LatinAmerica. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Ironically, the first revolution inspired by the new politicalthought that originated in England began in the North Americancolonies and was directed at England. It began when Americancolonists resisted Britains attempt to impose new taxes and tradecontrols on the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in1763.Many also resented Britains attempts to control the movementwest. Taxation without representation moody British politicaltheory on its ear, but it became a major theme as the rebellionspread from Massachusetts throughout the rest of the colonies. Colonial leaders set up a new government and issued the Declarationof emancipation in 1776. The British sent forces to put the rebelliondown, but the fighting continued for several years until the newlycreated United States eventually won. The United States Constitutionthat followed was based on enlightenment principles, with leashbranches of government that regard and balance one another.Althoughinitially only a few had the right to vote and slavery was notabolished, the government became a model for revolutions to come. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION A very different situation exi sted in France. No establishednobility existed in the United States, so when independence wasachieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure tothrow off. In contrast, the Revolution in France was a civil war, arising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risenover centuries.The king, of course, had absolute power, but thenobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else had. Socialclasses were divided into three estates first was the clergy, secondthe nobility, and the deuce-ace Estate was everyone else. On the eve ofthe Revolution in 1789, about 97% of the population of France wasthrown into the Third Estate, although they held only about 5% of theland. They also paid 100% of the taxes. Part of the problem was that the growing class of the bourgeoisiehad no political privileges.They read Enlightenment philosophes,they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resentedpaying all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structureas out of date and the nobles as silly and vain, undeserving of theprivileges they had. The French Revolution began with male monarch Louis XVI called theEstates-General, or the old parliamentary structure, together for thefirst time in 160 years. He did so only because the country was infinancial crisis brought on by too many wars for power and anextravagant romance life at Versailles Palace.Many problems convergedto create the Revolution the nobles refusal to pay taxes,bourgeoisie resentment of the king, Louis Vics incompetence, and aseries of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seizedcontrol of the proceedings and declared the creation of the NationalAssembly, a legislative body that still exists in France today. Theywrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeledafter the American Declaration of Independence, and they set about towrite a Constitution for France.The years after the revolution began were dissipated ones that sawthe king beheaded and the government taken over by the Jacobins, aradical host that sought equality through executing those thatdisagreed with the government. The Reign of Terror lasted for abouttwo years, with thousands of people guillotined and thousands morefleeing the country. The Jacobin leaders themselves were eventuallyguillotined the country teetered for several years in disarray, and ultimately was swept up by snooze Bonaparte as he claimed French gloryin battle. democracy did not come easily in France. CONSERVATIVE REACTION TOREVOLUTIONNapoleon Bonaparte, of minor(ip) nobility from the island of Corsica,rose through the ranks of the French military during a time of chaos. He seized the French Government at a time when no one else couldcontrol it. He promised stability and conquest, and by 1812 theFrench Empire dominated Europe to the borders of Russia. His invasionof Russia was unsuccessful, done in by cold winters, long supplylines, and Tsar Alexander Its make out and retrea t method that leftFrench armies without food. Finally, an alliance of Europeancountries led by Britain foilinged Napoleon in 1815 at Waterloo inmodern day Belgium.Although Napoleon was defeated and exiled, othercountries were horrified by what had happened in France arevolution, the beheading of a king, a terrorizing egalitariangovernment, and finally a demagog who attacked all of Europe. To unprogressive Europe, France was a problem that had to be containedbefore their ideas and actions spread to the rest of thecontinent. The consort that had defeated Napoleon met at Vienna in 1815 toreach a two-eyed violet settlement that would make further revolutionsimpossible. The Congress of Vienna was controlled by therepresentatives of three nations Britain, Austria, and Russia.Eachcountry precious something different. The British wanted to destroy theFrench war machine, Russia wanted to establish an alliance based onChristianity, and Austria wanted a return to absolutism. They reachedan agreement based on restoring the balance of power in Europe, orthe principle that no one country should ever dominate the others. Rather, the power should be balanced among all the major countries. France actually came out rather well in the proceedings, due in largepart to the talents of their representative, Tallyrand.However, theCongress restricted France with these major decisions Monarchies including the monarchy in France were restored in countries that Napoleon had conquered France was ring-shaped with strong countries by its borders to keep its military in check. The Concert of Europe was formed, an organization of European states meant to maintain the balance of power. THE SPREAD OF REVOLUTION AND NEW POLITICALIDEAS No matter how the Congress of Vienna tried to stem the course ofrevolution, it did not work in the long run.France was to wobbleback and forth between monarchy and republican government for thirtymore years, and then was ruled by Napoleon III (Bonapartes nephew)until 1871, when finally a parliamentary government emerged. Andother countries in Europe, as well as colonies in Latin America, hadheard the shot heard round the world, and the true impact of therevolutionary political ideas began to be felt. REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA From North America and France, revolutionary enthusiasm spreadthroughout the Caribbean and Spanish and Portuguese America.Incontrast to the leaders of the War for Independence for the UnitedStates, most of the early revolutions in Latin America began withsubordinated Amerindians and blacks. Even before the FrenchRevolution, Andean Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, besieged the ancientcapital of Cuzco and nearly conquered the Spanish army. The Creoleelite responded by breaking the ties to Spain and Portugal, butestablishing governments under their control. Freedom, then, wasinterpreted to mean liberty for the proportion-owning classes. Only inthe French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti) did slaves carry out asucc essful insurrection.The rebellion in 1791 led to several years of civil war in Haiti,even though French abolished slavery in 1793. When Napoleon came topower, he sent an army to mild the forces led by ToussaintLOuverture, a former slave. However, Napoleons army was decimatedby guerrilla fighters and chicken fever, and even though Toussaintdied in a French jail, Haiti declared its independence in 1804. Other revolutions in Latin America were led by political andsocial elites, although some of them had important populistelements. Brazil Portugals royal family fled to Brazil when Napoleons march stormed the Iberian Peninsula.The presence of the royal family dampened revolutionary fervor, especially since the king instituted reforms in administration, agriculture, and manufacturing. He also established schools, hospitals, and a library. The king returned to Portugal in 1821, after Napoleons threat was over, leaving Brazil in the hands of his son Pedro. infra pressure from Brazili an elites, Pedro declared Brazils independence, and he signed a admit establishing a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the late 19th century when Pedro II was overthrown by republicans. Mexico Father Miguel Hidalgo led Mexicos rebellion that eventually led to independence in 1821. He was a Catholic priest who sympathized with the plight of the Amerindian peasants and was executed for tip a rebellion against the colonial government. The Creole elite then took up the drive for independence that was won under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a conservative military commander. However, Father Hidalgos cause greatly influenced Mexicos political atmosphere, as his populist ideas were taken up by others who led the people in revolt against the Creoles.Two famous populist leaders were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who like Father Hidalgo were executed by the government. Mexico was not to work out this tension between elite and peasants until well into the 20th century. Spanish South America Colonial elite landholders, merchants, and military also led Spanish colonies in South America in rebellion against Spain. The term junta came to be used for these local governments who wanted to overthrow colonial powers. Two junta centers in South America were 1. Caracas, Venezuela At first, laborers and slaves did not support this Creole-led junta.However, they were convinced to join the independence movement by Simon de Bolivar, a charismatic military leader with a vision of forging Gran Columbia, an independent, giant empire in the northern part of South America. He defeated the Spanish, but did not achieve his dream of empire. Instead, regional differences caused the newly independent lands to split into several countries. 2. Buenos Aires, Argentina some other charismatic military leaders Jose de San Martin led armies for independence from the southern part of the continent.His combined Chilean/Argentine forces joined with Bolivar in Peru, where they helped the northern areas to defeat the Spanish. Martins areas, like those led by Bolivar, also split along regional differences. All in all, constitutional experiments in North America were moresuccessful than those in South America. Though South Americans gainedindependence from colonial governments during the 19th century, theirgovernments remained authoritarian and no effective legislatures werecreated to share the power with political leaders. Why thisdifference? COMPARATIVE constitutive(a) EXPERIMENTS NORTH AMERICA AND conspiracy AMERICA NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA Mother country had parliamentary government, so colonial governments had a Mother country governed by absolute monarch colonial constitutional model governments had authoritarian model Colonies had previous experience with popular political sympathies had their wn Colonies had no experience with popular politics governments that often operated independently from British control colonial governments l ed by authoritarian Creoles Military leaders were popular and sometimes became Presidents (Washington, Had difficulty subduing the power of military leaders Jackson), but they did not try to take over the government as military set in place the tradition of military juntas taking leaders constitutional principle that military would be subordinate to theover governments government American Revolution occurred in the 1770s vulnerable new nation emerged atLatin American Revolutions occurred during the early an economically good time, when the world economy was expanding 1800s, a time when the world economy was contracting, a less advantageous time for new nations The differences in political backgrounds of the two continents ledto some very different consequences. For the United States (andeventually Canada), it meant that relatively democratic governmentsleft entrepreneurs open to the Industrial Revolution, which, afterall, started in their mother country. For Latin Americ a, it meantthat their governments were less supportive and/or more upstage fromthe economic transformations of the Industrial Revolutions, andstable democratic governments and economic prosperity would be a longtime in coming. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OFREVOLUTIONSThe Enlightenment philosophy that inspired revolutions in theUnited States, France, and Latin America brought about lastingchanges in western political ideology, with some people reactingagainst the chaos that revolutions brought, and others inspired bythe values of democracy, liberty, equality, and justice. Threecontrasting ideologies may be seen by the early 1800s Conservatism People who supported this philosophy at first advocated return to absolute monarchy, but came to accept constitutional monarchy by the mid-1800s. Generally, conservatives disapproved of the revolutions of the era, especially the French Revolution with all the violence and chaos that it brought. Liberalism Liberals supported a republican democra cy, or a government with an elected legislature who stand for the people in political decision-making.These representatives were generally from the elite, but were selected (usually by vote) from a popular base of citizens. Emphasis was generally on liberty or freedom from oppression, rather than on equality. Radicalism Radicals advocated drastic changes in government and forceful equality more than liberty. Their philosophies varied, but they were most concerned with narrowing the gap between elites and the general population. The Jacobins during the French Revolution, and Marxism that appeared in the mid 19th century were variations of this ideological family. REFORM MOVEMENTS The political values supported by revolutions were embraced bysome who saw them as applying to all people, including women andformer slaves.Values of liberty, equality, and democracy hadprofound implications for change within societies that had alwaysaccepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reformmovements sprouted up as different people put differentinterpretations on what these new political and social valuesactually meant. Womens Rights Advocates of womens rights were particularly active in Britain,France, and North America. Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer,was one of the first to argue that women possess all the rightsthat Locke had granted to men, including education and participationin political life. Many French women off-key that they would begranted equal rights after the revolution. However, it did not bringthe right to vote or run into major roles in public affairs.Since genderroles did not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, socialreformers pressed for womens rights in North America and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in theUnited States decided to concentrate their efforts on suffrage, orthe right to vote. A resolution passed at Seneca Falls, New York, in1848, emphasized womens rights to suffrage, as well as to education,professional occupations, and political office. Their movement didnot receive popular support, however, until the 20th century, buttheir activism laid a foundation for large social changelater. The Limits of the Abolitionist MovementAlthough slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by thelate 19th century, blacks did not realize equality within the timeperiod. Although former slaves were guaranteed the right to vote inthe late 1860s in the United States, they were effectively barredfrom political participation by state and local legislation calledJim Crow laws. Blacks all over the Americas tended to have the leastdesirable jobs, limited educational opportunities, and lower socialstatus than whites. Conservative Reactions to Reform During the late 1800s two systems of related political thoughtemerged among conservatives to justify inequalities Scientific racism This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized societies.It used scientific reasoning and evidence to prove its premise that blacks are physiologically and mentally inferior to whites. The theory generally constructed three main races in the world Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Negroid and built its arguments that basic differences existed among them that made Negroids inherently inferior to Caucasians. Scientific racism, then, justified the inferior positions that blacks had in the society and the economy. Social Darwinism This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and the poor. It used Darwins theory of natural selection (living things that are better adapted to the environment survive, others dont) to explain why some get rich and others remain poor.In the emulation for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated naturally defeat the weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top deserve it, as do the people who remain at the bottom Marx ism Another reaction to the revolution in political thought wasMarxism, The father of communism is generally acknowledged to be KarlMarx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and visionfor the future in The Communist manifesto in 1848. He saw capitalism or the free market as an economic system thatexploited workers and increased the gap between the rich and thepoor.He believed that conditions in capitalist countries wouldeventually become so bad that workers would join together in aRevolution of the Proletariat (workers), and overcome thebourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx project a new world after the revolution, one in which socialclass would go away because ownership of private property would bebanned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality andcooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife,governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe,but never became the philosophy behind Europe an governments, but iteventually took new forms in early 20th century Russia and China. NATIONALISMIn older forms of political organizations, the glue of politicalunity came from the ruler, whether it is a king, emperor, sultan, orcaliph. Political power generally was built on military might, and aruler controlled the land that he conquered as long as he controlledit. Power was often passed down within one family that based thelegitimacy of their rule on principles that held sway over theirpopulations, often some kind of special contact with the spiritualworld. The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type ofpolitical organization the nation that survived even if therulers failed. Whereas nations political boundaries were still oftendecided by military victory, the political entity was much broaderthan control by one person or family.Nations were built onnationalism the feeling of identity within a common group ofpeople. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of theworld. However, the force of common identity became a basic buildingblock for nations, political forms that still dominate world politicstoday. Nationalism could be based on common geographical locations,language, religion, or customs, but it is much more complex thanthat. The main idea is that people see themselves as Americans orItalians or Japanese, despite the fact that significant culturalvariations may exist within the nation. Napoleon contributed a great deal to the development of strongnationalism in 19th century Europe.His conquests were done in thename of France, even though the French monarchy had been deposed. The more he conquered, the more pride people had in being French. He also stir up feelings of nationalism within a people that heconquered Germans that could not comport being taken over by theFrench. In Napoleons day Germany did not exist as a country yet, butpeople still thought of themselves as being German. Instead Germanslived in a political entity kn own as The Holy Roman Empire. However, the nationalism that Napoleon invoked became the basis forfurther revolutions, in which people around the world sought todetermine their own sovereignty, a principle that Woodrow Wilsoncalled self-determination. overdress OF WESTERN DOMINANCEA combination of economic and political transformations in Europethat began in the 1450 to 1750 era converged between 1750 and 1914 toallow the west (including the United States and Australia) todominate the rest of the world. From China to the Muslim states toAfrica, virtually all other parts of the world became the have notsto the wests haves. With political and economic dominance camecontrol in cultural and artistic areas as well. NEW European NATIONS A major political development inspired by growing nationalism wasthe consolidation of small states into two important new nations Italy Before the second half of the 19th century, Italy was a collection of city-states that were only in the main allied with one another. A unification movement was begun in the north by Camillo di Cavour, and in the north by Giuseppe Garibaldi.As states unified one by one, the two leaders joined, and Italy became a unified nation under King Vittore Emmanuele II. The movement was a successful attempt to escape the historical domination of the peninsula by Spain in the south and Austria in the north. Germany The German Confederation was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but it had been controlled by the Austrian and Prussian Empires. In 1848 major rebellions broke out within the confederation, inspired by liberals who envisioned a German nation ruled by parliamentary government. The revolutions failed, and many liberals fled the country, but they proved to be an excuse for the Prussian army to invade other parts of the Confederation.The Prussian military leader was Otto von Bismarck, who oppress the rebels and declared the beginning of the German Empire. The government was a constitutional monarchy, with Kaiser Wilhelm I govern, but for a number of years, Bismarck had control. He provoked three wars &endash with Denmark, Austria, and France &endash and appealed to German nationalism to create a strong new nation in the heart of Europe. He pronounced it the 2nd Reich or ruling era (the 1st was the Holy Roman Empire and the 3rd was set up by Adolph Hitler in the 20th century). These new nations altered the balance of power in Europe, causingestablished nations like Britain and France concern that their ownpower was in danger.Nationalism, then, was spurred on by a renewalof